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INCA  LAND 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016  with  funding  from 
Getty  Research  Institute 


https://archive.org/details/incalandexplorat00bing_1 


“ Something  hidden  Go  and  find  it.  Go  and  look  behind  the  Ranges  — 
Something  lost  behind  the  Ranges.  Lost  and  waiting  for  you.  Go!” 

Kipling:  “ The  Explorer" 


INCA  LAND 

Explorations  in  the  Highlands 
of  Peru 

BY 

HIRAM  BINGHAM 

Director  of  the  Peruvian  Expeditions  of  Yale  University  and  the 
National  Geographic  Society,  Member  of  the  American  Alpine 
Club,  Professor  of  Latin- American  History  in  Yale  University} 
author  of  “Across  South  America etc. 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


BOSTON  AND  NEW  YORK 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

iUticcsitic  JJtcfiJ  (Cambridge 


COPYRIGHT,  1912,  1913,  AND  1914.  BY  HARPER  & BROTHERS 
COPYRIGHT,  1913,  1915,  AND  1916,  BY  NATIONAL  GEOGRAPHIC  SOCIETY 
COPYRIGHT,  1922,  BY  HIRAM  BINGHAM 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


SECOND  IMPRESSION,  NOVEMBER,  I922 
THIRD  IMPRESSION,  APRIL,  1923 


Wl je  ftibercri&e  JJrtss 

CAMBRIDGE  . MASSACHUSETTS 
PRINTED  IN  THE  U.S.A. 


THIS  VOLUME 

IS  AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED 
TO 

THE  MUSE  WHO  INSPIRED  IT 
THE  LITTLE  MOTHER  OF  SEVEN  SONS 


PREFACE 


THE  following  pages  represent  some  of  the  re- 
sults of  four  journeys  into  the  interior  of  Peru 
and  also  many  explorations  into  the  labyrinth  of 
early  writings  which  treat  of  the  Incas  and  their 
Land.  Although  my  travels  covered  only  a part  of 
southern  Peru,  they  took  me  into  every  variety  of 
climate  and  forced  me  to  camp  at  almost  every  alti- 
tude at  which  men  have  constructed  houses  or 
erected  tents  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  — from 
sea  level  up  to  21,703  feet.  It  has  been  my  lot  to 
cross  bleak  Andean  passes,  where  there  are  heavy 
snowfalls  and  low  temperatures,  as  well  as  to  wend 
my  way  through  gigantic  canyons  into  the  dense 
jungles  of  the  Amazon  Basin,  as  hot  and  humid  a re- 
gion as  exists  anywhere  in  the  world.  The  Incas 
lived  in  a land  of  violent  contrasts.  No  deserts  in  the 
world  have  less  vegetation  than  those  of  Sihuas  and 
Majes;  no  luxuriant  tropical  valleys  have  more 
plant  life  than  the  jungles  of  Conservidayoc.  In 
Inca  Land  one  may  pass  from  glaciers  to  tree  ferns 
within  a few  hours.  So  also  in  the  labyrinth  of  con- 
temporary chronicles  of  the  last  of  the  Incas  — no 
historians  go  more  rapidly  from  fact  to  fancy,  from 
accurate  observation  to  grotesque  imagination;  no 
writers  omit  important  details  and  give  conflicting 
statements  with  greater  frequency.  The  story  of  the 
Incas  is  still  in  a maze  of  doubt  and  contradiction. 
It  was  the  mystery  and  romance  of  some  of  the 


Vlll 


PREFACE 


wonderful  pictures  of  a nineteenth-century  explorer 
that  first  led  me  into  the  relatively  unknown  region 
between  the  Apurimac  and  the  Urubamba,  some- 
times called  “the  Cradle  of  the  Incas.”  Although 
my  photographs  cannot  compete  with  the  imagina- 
tive pencil  of  such  an  artist,  nevertheless,  I hope  that 
some  of  them  may  lead  future  travelers  to  penetrate 
still  farther  into  the  Land  of  the  Incas  and  engage 
in  the  fascinating  game  of  identifying  elusive  places 
mentioned  in  the  chronicles. 

Some  of  my  story  has  already  been  told  in  Har- 
per's and  the  National  Geographic , to  whose  editors 
acknowledgments  are  due  for  permission  to  use 
the  material  in  its  present  form.  A glance  at  the 
Bibliography  will  show  that  more  than  sixty  articles 
and  monographs  have  been  published  as  a result  of 
the  Peruvian  Expeditions  of  Yale  University  and  the 
National  Geographic  Society.  Other  reports  are  still 
in  course  of  preparation.  My  own  observations  are 
based  partly  on  a study  of  these  monographs  and 
the  writings  of  former  travelers,  partly  on  the  maps 
and  notes  made  by  my  companions,  and  partly  on  a 
study  of  our  Peruvian  photographs,  a collection  now 
numbering  over  eleven  thousand  negatives.  An- 
other source  of  information  was  the  opportunity  of 
frequent  conferences  with  my  fellow  explorers.  One 
of  the  great  advantages  of  large  expeditions  is  the 
bringing  to  bear  on  the  same  problem  of  minds 
which  have  received  widely  different  training. 

My  companions  on  these  journeys  were,  in  1909, 
Mr.  Clarence  L.  Hay;  in  1911,  Dr.  Isaiah  Bowman, 
Professor  Harry  Ward  Foote,  Dr.  William  G.  Erv- 


PREFACE 


IX 


mg,  Messrs.  Kai  Hendriksen,  H.  L.  Tucker,  and 
Paul  B.  Lanius;  in  1912,  Professor  Herbert  E.  Gre- 
gory, Dr.  George  F.  Eaton,  Dr.  Luther  T.  Nelson, 
Messrs.  Albert  H.  Bumstead,  E.  C.  Erdis,  Kenneth 
C.  Heald,  Robert  Stephenson,  Paul  Bestor,  Osgood 
Hardy,  and  Joseph  Little;  and  in  1915,  Dr.  David 
E.  Ford,  Messrs.  O.  F.  Cook,  Edmund  Heller,  E.  C. 
Erdis,  E.  L.  Anderson,  Clarence  F.  Maynard,  J.  J. 
Hasbrouck,  Osgood  Hardy,  Geoffrey  W.  Morkill, 
and  G.  Bruce  Gilbert.  To  these,  my  comrades  in  en- 
terprises which  were  not  always  free  from  discom- 
fort or  danger,  I desire  to  acknowledge  most  fully 
my  great  obligations.  In  the  following  pages  they 
will  sometimes  recognize  their  handiwork;  at  other 
times  they  may  wonder  why  it  has  been  overlooked. 
Perhaps  in  another  volume,  which  is  already  under 
way  and  in  which  I hope  to  cover  more  particularly 
Machu  Picchu  1 and  its  vicinity,  they  will  eventually 
find  much  of  what  cannot  be  told  here. 

Sincere  and  grateful  thanks  are  due  also  to  Mr. 
Edward  S.  Harkness  for  offering  generous  assistance 
when  aid  was  most  difficult  to  secure;  to  Mr.  Gilbert 
Grosvenor  and  the  National  Geographic  Society  for 
liberal  and  enthusiastic  support;  to  President  Taft  of 
the  United  States  and  President  Leguia  of  Peru  for 

1 Many  people  have  asked  me  how  to  pronounce  Machu  Picchu. 
Quichua  words  should  always  be  pronounced  as  nearly  as  possible  as 
they  are  written.  They  represent  an  attempt  at  phonetic  spelling. 
If  the  attempt  is  made  by  a Spanish  writer,  he  is  always  likely  to 
put  a silent  “h”  at  the  beginning  of  such  words  as  huilca  which  is 
pronounced  “weel-ka.”  In  the  middle  of  a word  “h”  is  always 
sounded.  Machu  Picchu  is  pronounced  “Mah'-chew  Pick'-chew.” 
Uiticos  is  pronounced  “ Weet'-ee-kos.”  Uilcapampa  is  pronounced 
“ Weel'-ka-pahm-pah.”  Cuzco  is  “Koos'-koh.” 


X 


PREFACE 


official  help  of  a most  important  nature;  to  Messrs. 
W.  R.  Grace  & Company  and  to  Mr.  William  L. 
Morkill  and  Mr.  L.  S.  Blaisdell,  of  the  Peruvian  Cor- 
poration, for  cordial  and  untiring  cooperation;  to 
Don  Cesare  Lomellini,  Don  Pedro  Duque,  and  their 
sons,  and  Mr.  Frederic  B.  Johnson,  of  Yale  Univer- 
sity, for  many  practical  kindnesses;  to  Mrs.  Blanche 
Peberdy  Tompkins  and  Miss  Mary  G.  Reynolds  for 
invaluable  secretarial  aid ; and  last,  but  by  no  means 
least,  to  Mrs.  Alfred  Mitchell  for  making  possible 
the  writing  of  this  book. 

Hiram  Bingham 

Yale  University 
October  i,  1922 


CONTENTS 


I.  Crossing  the  Desert  i 

II.  Climbing  Coropuna  23 

III.  To  Parinacochas  50 

IV.  Flamingo  Lake  74 

V.  Titicaca  95 

VI.  The  Vilcanota  Country  and  the  Peru- 
vian Highlanders  no 

VII.  The  Valley  of  the  Huatanay  133 

VIII.  The  Oldest  City  in  South  America  157 

IX.  The  Last  Four  Incas  170 

X.  Searching  for  the  Last  Inca  Capital  198 

XI.  The  Search  Continued  217 

XII.  The  Fortress  of  Uiticos  and  the  House 

of  the  Sun  241 

XIII.  Vilcabamba  255 

XIV.  CONSERVIDAYOC  266 

XV.  The  Pampa  of  Ghosts  292 

XVI.  The  Story  of  Tampu-tocco,  a Lost  City 

of  the  First  Incas  * 306 

XVII.  Machu  Picchu  314 

XVIII.  The  Origin  of  Machu  Picchu  326 


xii 

Glossary 


CONTENTS 


Bibliography  of  the  Peruvian  Expeditions  of 
Yale  University  and  the  National  Geo- 
graphic Society 


Index 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


‘‘Something  hidden.  Go  and  find  it.  Go  and 
look  behind  the  Ranges  ” Frontispiece 

Sketch  Map  of  Southern  Peru  i 

Mt.  Coropuna  from  the  Northwest  12 

Mt.  Coropuna  from  the  South  24 

The  Base  Camp,  Coropuna,  at  17,300  Feet  32 

Photograph  by  H.  L.  Tucker 

Camping  at  18,450  Feet  on  the  Slopes  of  Coro- 
puna 32 

Photograph  by  H.  L.  Tucker 

One  of  the  Frequent  Rests  in  the  Ascent  of 
Coropuna  42 

Photograph  by  H.  L.  Tucker 

The  Camp  on  the  Summit  42 

Photograph  by  H.  L.  Tucker 

The  Sub-Prefect  of  Cotahuasi,  his  Military 
Aide,  and  Messrs.  Tucker,  Hendriksen,  Bow- 
man, and  Bingham  inspecting  the  Local  Rug- 
weaving Industry  60 

Photograph  by  C.  Watkins 

Inca  Storehouses  at  Chichipampa,  near  Colta  66 

Photograph  by  H.  L.  Tucker 

Flamingoes  on  Lake  Parinacochas,  and  Mt. 
Sarasara  78 

Mr.  Tucker  on  a Mountain  Trail  near  Caraveli  90 

The  Main  Street  of  Chuquibamba  90 

Photograph  by  H.  L.  Tucker 

A Lake  Titicaca  Balsa  at  Puno  98 


XIV 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


A Step-topped  Niche  on  the  Island  of  Koati  98 
Indian  Alcaldes  at  Santa  Rosa  i 14 

Native  Druggists  in  the  Plaza  of  Sicuani  114 

Laying  down  the  Warp  for  a Blanket  ; near  the 
Pass  of  La  Raya  120 

Plowing  a Potato-Field  at  La  Raya  120 

The  Ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Viracocha  at 
Racche  128 

Route  Map  of  the  Peruvian  Expedition  of  1912  132 

Lucre  Basin,  Lake  Muyna,  and  the  City  Wall 

OF  PlQUILLACTA  1 36 

Sacsahuaman:  Detail  of  Lower  Terrace  Wall  140 
Ruins  of  the  Aqueduct  of  Rumiccolca  140 

Huatanay  Valley,  Cuzco,  and  the  Ayahuaycco 
Quebrada  150 

Map  of  Peru  and  View  of  Cuzco  158 

From  the  “Speculum  Orbis  Terrarum,”  Antwerp,  1578 

Towers  of  Jesuit  Church  with  Cloisters  and 
Tennis  Court  of  University,  Cuzco  162 

Glaciers  between  Cuzco  and  Uiticos  170 

The  Urubamba  Canyon:  A Reason  for  the 
Safety  of  the  Incas  in  Uilcapampa  176 

Yucay,  Last  Home  of  Sayri  Tupac  186 

Part  of  the  Nuremberg  Map  of  1599,  showing 
Pincos  and  the  Andes  Mountains  198 

Route  Map  of  the  Peruvian  Expedition  of  1915  202 

Mt.  Veronica  and  Salapunco,  the  Gateway  to 
Uilcapampa  206 

Grosvenor  Glacier  and  Mt.  Salcantay  210 

The  Road  between  Maquina  and  Mandor 
Pampa,  near  Machu  Picchu  214 

Huadquina  220 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 

Ruins  of  Yurak  Rumi  near  Huadquina  225 

Plan  and  elevations  drawn  by  A.  H.  Bumstead 
PuCYURA  AND  THE  HlLL  OF  ROSASPATA  IN  THE  VlL- 

cabamba  Valley  238 

Principal  Doorway  of  the  Long  Palace  at 
Rosaspata  242 

Photograph  by  E.  C.  Erdis 

Another  Doorway  in  the  Ruins  of  Rosaspata  242 

Northeast  Face  of  Yurak  Rumi  246 

Plan  of  the  Ruins  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun 
at  Nusta  Isppana  248 

Drawn  by  A.  H.  Bumstead 

Carved  Seats  and  Platforms  of  Nusta  Isppana  250 

Two  of  the  Seven  Seats  near  the  Spring  under 
the  Great  White  Rock  250 

Photograph  by  A.  H.  Bumstead 

Nusta  Isppana  256 

QuiSPI  Cusi  TESTIFYING  ABOUT  INCA  RUINS  268 

Photograph  by  H.  W.  Foote 

One  of  our  Bearers  crossing  the  Pampaconas 
River  268 

Photograph  by  H.  W.  Foote 

Saavedra  and  his  Inca  Pottery  288 

Inca  Gable  at  Espiritu  Pampa  288 

Photograph  by  H.  L.  Tucker 

Inca  Ruins  in  the  Jungles  of  Espiritu  Pampa  294 

Campa  Men  at  Espiritu  Pampa  302 

Photograph  by  H.  L.  Tucker 

Campa  Women  and  Children  at  Espiritu  Pampa  302 

Photograph  by  H.  L.  Tucker 

Puma  Urco,  near  Paccaritampu  306 

The  Best  Inca  Wall  at  Maucallacta,  near 
Paccaritampu  312 


XVI 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


The  Caves  of  Puma  Urco,  near  Paccaritampu  312 

Flashlight  View  of  Interior  of  Cave,  Machu 
Picchu  320 

Temple  over  Cave  at  Machu  Picchu;  suggested 
by  the  Author  as  the  Probable  Site  of  Tam- 
pu-tocco  320 

Detail  of  Principal  Temple,  Machu  Picchu  324 

Detail  of  Exterior  of  Temple  of  the  Three 
Windows,  Machu  Picchu  324 

The  Masonry  Wall  with  Three  Windows, 
Machu  Picchu  328 

The  Gorges,  opening  Wide  Apart,  reveal  Uil- 
capampa’s  Granite  Citadel,  the  Crown  of  , 
Inca  Land  : Machu  Picchu  338 

Except  as  otherwise  indicated  the  illustrations  are  from 
photographs  by  the  author. 


INCA  LAND 


r - 


SKETCH  MAP  OF  SOUTHERN  PERU 


INCA  LAND 


CHAPTER  I 


CROSSING  THE  DESERT 


KIND  friend  in  Bolivia  once  placed  in  my 


hands  a copy  of  a most  interesting  book  by 
the  late  E.  George  Squier,  entitled  “Peru.  Travel 
and  Exploration  in  the  Land  of  the  Incas.”  In  that 
volume  is  a marvelous  picture  of  the  Apurimac 
Valley.  In  the  foreground  is  a delicate  suspension 
bridge  which  commences  at  a tunnel  in  the  face  of  a 
precipitous  cliff  and  hangs  in  mid-air  at  great  height 
above  the  swirling  waters  of  the  “great  speaker.” 
In  the  distance,  towering  above  a mass  of  stupen- 
dous mountains,  is  a magnificent  snow-capped  peak. 
The  desire  to  see  the  Apurimac  and  experience  the 
thrill  of  crossing  that  bridge  decided  me  in  favor  of 
an  overland  journey  to  Lima. 

As  a result  I went  to  Cuzco,  the  ancient  capital 
of  the  mighty  empire  of  the  Incas,  and  was  there 
urged  by  the  Peruvian  authorities  to  visit  some 
newly  re-discovered  Inca  ruins.  As  readers  of 
“Across  South  America”  will  remember,  these 
ruins  were  at  Choqquequirau,  an  interesting  place 
on  top  of  a jungle-covered  ridge  several  thousand 
feet  above  the  roaring  rapids  of  the  great  Apurimac. 


2 


INCA  LAND 


There  was  some  doubt  as  to  who  had  originally  lived 
here.  The  prefect  insisted  that  the  ruins  represented 
the  residence  of  the  Inca  Manco  and  his  sons,  who 
had  sought  refuge  from  Pizarro  and  the  Spanish  con- 
querors of  Peru  in  the  Andes  between  the  Apurimac 
and  Urubamba  rivers. 

While  Mr.  Clarence  L.  Hay  and  I were  on  the 
slopes  of  Choqquequirau  the  clouds  would  occasion- 
ally break  away  and  give  us  tantalizing  glimpses  of 
snow-covered  mountains.  There  seemed  to  be  an 
unknown  region,  “behind  the  Ranges/’  which  might 
contain  great  possibilities.  Our  guides  could  tell  us 
nothing  about  it.  Little  was  to  be  found  in  books. 
Perhaps  Manco’s  capital  was  hidden  there.  For 
months  afterwards  the  fascination  of  the  unknown 
drew  my  thoughts  to  Choqquequirau  and  beyond. 
In  the  words  of  Kipling’s  “Explorer”: 

“.  . „ a voice,  as  bad  as  Conscience,  rang  interminable  changes 
On  one  everlasting  Whisper  day  and  night  repeated  — so : 
‘Something  hidden.  Go  and  find  it.  Go  and  look  behind  the 

Ranges  — 

Something  lost  behind  the  Ranges.  Lost  and  waiting  for  you. 

Go!”’ 


To  add  to  my  unrest,  during  the  following  sum- 
mer I read  Bandelier’s  “Titicaca  and  Koati,”  which 
had  just  appeared.  In  one  of  the  interesting  foot- 
notes was  this  startling  remark:  “It  is  much  to  be 
desired  that  the  elevation  of  the  most  prominent 
peaks  of  the  western  or  coast  range  of  Peru  be  accu- 
rately determined.  It  is  likely  . . . that  Coropuna , 
in  the  Peruvian  coast  range  of  the  Department  Are- 
quipa,  is  the  culminating  point  of  the  continent.  It 


CROSSING  THE  DESERT 


3 


exceeds  23,000  feet  in  height,  whereas  Aconcagua 
[conceded  to  be  the  highest  peak  in  the  Western 
Hemisphere]  is  but  22,763  feet  (6940  meters)  above 
sea  level.”  His  estimate  was  based  on  a survey  made 
by  the  civil  engineers  of  the  Southern  Railways  of 
Peru,  using  a section  of  the  railroad  as  a base.  My 
sensations  when  I read  this  are  difficult  to  describe. 
Although  I had  been  studying  South  American  his- 
tory and  geography  for  more  than  ten  years,  I did 
not  remember  ever  to  have  heard  of  Coropuna.  On 
most  maps  it  did  not  exist.  Fortunately,  on  one  of 
the  sheets  of  Raimondi’s  large-scale  map  of  Peru, 
I finally  found  “Coropuna  — 6,949  m.”  — 9 meters 
higher  than  Aconcagua!  — one  hundred  miles  north- 
west of  Arequipa,  near  the  73d  meridian  west  of 
Greenwich. 

Looking  up  and  down  the  73d  meridian  as  it 
crossed  Peru  from  the  Amazon  Valley  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  I saw  that  it  passed  very  near  Choqque- 
quirau,  and  actually  traversed  those  very  lands 
“behind  the  Ranges”  which  had  been  beckoning  to 
me.  The  coincidence  was  intriguing.  The  desire  to 
go  and  find  that  “something  hidden ” was  now  reen- 
forced by  the  temptation  to  go  and  see  whether 
Coropuna  really  was  the  highest  mountain  in  Amer- 
ica. There  followed  the  organization  of  an  expedi- 
tion whose  object  was  a geographical  reconnaissance 
of  Peru  along  the  73d  meridian,  from  the  head  of 
canoe  navigation  on  the  Urubamba  to  tidewater  on 
the  Pacific.  We  achieved  more  than  we  expected. 

Our  success  was  due  in  large  part  to  our  “unit- 
food-boxes,”  a device  containing  a balanced  ration 


4 


INCA  LAND 


which  Professor  Harry  W.  Foote  had  cooperated 
with  me  in  assembling.  The  object  of  our  idea  was 
to  facilitate  the  provisioning  of  small  field  parties  by 
packing  in  a single  box  everything  that  two  men 
would  need  in  the  way  of  provisions  for  a given 
period.  These  boxes  have  given  such  general  satis- 
faction, not  only  to  the  explorers  themselves,  but  to 
the  surgeons  who  had  the  responsibility  of  keeping 
them  in  good  condition,  that  a few  words  in  regard 
to  this  feature  of  our  equipment  may  not  be  unwel- 
come. 

The  best  unit-food-box  provides  a balanced  ration 
for  two  men  for  eight  days,  breakfast  and  supper 
being  hearty,  cooked  meals,  and  luncheon  light  and 
uncooked.  It  was  not  intended  that  the  men  should 
depend  entirely  on  the  food-boxes,  but  should  vary 
their  diet  as  much  as  possible  with  whatever  the 
country  afforded,  which  in  southern  Peru  frequently 
means  potatoes,  corn,  eggs,  mutton,  and  bread. 
Nevertheless  each  box  contained  sliced  bacon,  tinned 
corned  beef,  roast  beef,  chicken,  salmon,  crushed 
oats,  milk,  cheese,  coffee,  sugar,  rice,  army  bread, 
salt,  sweet  chocolates,  assorted  jams,  pickles,  and 
dried  fruits  and  vegetables.  By  seeing  that  the  jam, 
dried  fruits,  soups,  and  dried  vegetables  were  well 
assorted,  a sufficient  variety  was  procured  without 
destroying  the  balanced  character  of  the  ration.  On 
account  of  the  great  difficulty  of  transportation  in 
the  southern  Andes  we  had  to  eliminate  foods  that 
contained  a large  amount  of  water,  like  French  peas, 
baked  beans,  and  canned  fruits,  however  delicious 
and  desirable  they  might  be.  In  addition  to  food,  we 


CROSSING  THE  DESERT 


5 


found  it  desirable  to  include  in  each  box  a cake  of 
laundry  soap,  two  yards  of  dish  toweling,  and  three 
empty  cotton-cloth  bags,  to  be  used  for  carrying 
lunches  and  collecting  specimens.  The  most  highly 
appreciated  article  of  food  in  our  boxes  was  the 
rolled  oats,  a dish  which  on  account  of  its  being  al- 
ready partially  cooked  was  easily  prepared  at  high 
elevations,  where  rice  cannot  be  properly  boiled.  It 
was  difficult  to  satisfy  the  members  of  the  Expedi- 
tion by  providing  the  right  amount  of  sugar.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  field  season  the  allowance  — one 
third  of  a pound  per  day  per  man  — seemed  exces- 
sive, and  I was  criticized  for  having  overloaded  the 
boxes.  After  a month  in  the  field  the  allowance 
proved  to  be  too  small  and  had  to  be  supplemented. 

Many  people  seem  to  think  that  it  is  one  of  the 
duties  of  an  explorer  to  “rough  it,”  and  to  “trust  to 
luck”  for  his  food.  I had  found  on  my  first  two 
expeditions,  in  Venezuela  and  Colombia  and  across 
South  America,  that  the  result  of  being  obliged  to 
subsist  on  irregular  and  haphazard  rations  was  most 
unsatisfactory.  While  “roughing  it”  is  far  more  en- 
ticing to  the  inexperienced  and  indiscreet  explorer, 
I learned  in  Peru  that  the  humdrum  expedient  of 
carefully  preparing,  months  in  advance,  a compre- 
hensive bill  of  fare  sufficiently  varied,  wholesome, 
and  well-balanced,  is  “the  better  part  of  valor.” 
The  truth  is  that  providing  an  abundance  of  appe- 
tizing food  adds  very  greatly  to  the  effectiveness  of  a 
party.  To  be  sure,  it  may  mean  trouble  and  expense 
for  one’s  transportation  department,  and  some  of 
the  younger  men  may  feel  that  their  reputations  as 


6 


INCA  LAND 


explorers  are  likely  to  be  damaged  if  it  is  known  that 
strawberry  jam,  sweet  chocolate  and  pickles  are  fre- 
quently found  on  their  menu!  Nevertheless,  experi- 
ence has  shown  that  the  results  of  “ trusting  to  luck” 
and  “living  as  the  natives  do”  means  not  only  loss  of 
efficiency  in  the  day’s  work,  but  also  lessened  powers 
of  observation  and  diminished  enthusiasm  for  the 
drudgery  of  scientific  exploration.  Exciting  things 
are  always  easy  to  do,  no  matter  how  you  are  living, 
but  frequently  they  produce  less  important  results 
than  tasks  which  depend  upon  daily  drudgery;  and 
daily  drudgery  depends  upon  a regular  supply  of 
wholesome  food. 

We  reached  Arequipa,  the  proposed  base  for  our 
campaign  against  Mt.  Coropuna,  in  June,  1911.  We 
learned  that  the  Peruvian  “winter”  reaches  its 
climax  in  July  or  August,  and  that  it  would  be  folly 
to  try  to  climb  Coropuna  during  the  winter  snow- 
storms. On  the  other  hand,  the  “summer  months,” 
beginning  with  November,  are  cloudy  and  likely  to 
add  fog  and  mist  to  the  difficulties  of  climbing  a new 
mountain.  Furthermore,  June  and  July  are  the  best 
months  for  exploration  in  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Andes  in  the  upper  Amazon  Basin,  the  lands  “be- 
hind the  Ranges.”  Although  the  montana , or  jungle 
country,  is  rarely  actually  dry,  there  is  less  rain  then 
than  in  the  other  months  of  the  year ; so  we  decided 
to  go  first  to  the  Urubamba  Valley.  The  story  of  our 
discoveries  there,  of  identifying  Uiticos,  the  capital 
of  the  last  Incas,  and  of  the  finding  of  Machu 
Picchu  will  be  found  in  later  chapters.  In  September 


CROSSING  THE  DESERT 


7 


I returned  to  Arequipa  and  started  the  campaign 
against  Coropuna  by  endeavoring  to  get  adequate 
transportation  facilities  for  crossing  the  desert. 

Arequipa,  as  everybody  knows,  is  the  home  of  a 
station  of  the  Harvard  Observatory,  but  Arequipa 
is  also  famous  for  its  large  mules.  Unfortunately, 
a “mule  trust”  had  recently  been  formed  — need- 
less to  say,  by  an  American  — and  I found  it  diffi- 
cult to  make  any  satisfactory  arrangements.  After 
two  weeks  of  skirmishing,  the  Tejada  brothers  ap- 
peared, two  arrieros , or  muleteers,  who  seemed  will- 
ing to  listen  to  our  proposals.  We  offered  them  a 
thousand  soles  (five  hundred  dollars  gold)  if  they 
would  supply  us  with  a pack  train  of  eleven  mules 
for  two  months  and  go  with  us  wherever  we  chose, 
we  agreeing  not  to  travel  on  an  average  more  than 
seven  leagues 1 a day.  It  sounds  simple  enough  but 
it  took  no  end  of  argument  and  persuasion  on  the 
part  of  our  friends  in  Arequipa  to  convince  these 
worthy  arrieros  that  they  were  not  going  to  be  ever- 
lastingly ruined  by  this  bargain.  The  trouble  was 
that  they  owned  their  mules,  knew  the  great  danger 
of  crossing  the  deserts  that  lay  between  us  and 
Mt.  Coropuna,  and  feared  to  travel  on  unknown 
trails.  Like  most  muleteers,  they  were  afraid  of 
unfamiliar  country.  They  magnified  the  imaginary 
evils  of  the  road  to  an  inconceivable  pitch.  The 
argument  that  finally  persuaded  them  to  accept  the 
proffered  contract  was  my  promise  that  after  the 
first  week  the  cargo  would  be  so  much  less  that  at 

1 A league,  usually  about  2>lA  miles,  is  really  the  distance  an  average 
mule  can  walk  in  an  hour. 


8 


INCA  LAND 


least  two  of  the  pack  mules  could  always  be  free. 
The  Tejadas,  realizing  only  too  well  the  propensity 
of  pack  animals  to  get  sore  backs  and  go  lame,  re- 
garded my  promise  in  the  light  of  a factor  of  safety. 
Lame  mules  would  not  have  to  carry  loads. 

Everything  was  ready  by  the  end  of  the  month. 
Mr.  H.  L.  Tucker,  a member  of  Professor  H.  C. 
Parker’s  1910  Mt.  McKinley  Expedition  and  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  the  details  of  snow-and-ice- 
climbing,  whom  I had  asked  to  be  responsible  for 
securing  the  proper  equipment,  was  now  entrusted 
with  planning  and  directing  the  actual  ascent  of 
Coropuna.  Whatever  success  was  achieved  on  the 
mountain  was  due  primarily  to  Mr.  Tucker’s  skill 
and  foresight.  We  had  no  Swiss  guides,  and  had 
originally  intended  to  ask  two  other  members  of  the 
Expedition  to  join  us  on  the  climb.  However,  the 
exigencies  of  making  a geological  and  topographical 
cross  section  along  the  73d  meridian  through  a 
practically  unknown  region,  and  across  one  of  the 
highest  passes  in  the  Andes  (17,633  ft.),  had  delayed 
the  surveying  party  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  it 
impossible  for  them  to  reach  Coropuna  before  the 
first  of  November.  On  account  of  the  approach  of 
the  cloudy  season  it  did  not  seem  wise  to  wait  for 
their  cooperation.  Accordingly,  I secured  in  Are- 
quipa  the  services  of  Mr.  Casimir  Watkins,  an 
English  naturalist,  and  of  Mr.  F.  Hinckley,  of  the 
Harvard  Observatory.  It  was  proposed  that  Mr. 
Hinckley,  who  had  twice  ascended  El  Misti  (19,120 
ft.),  should  accompany  us  to  the  top,  while  Mr.  Wat- 
kins, who  had  only  recently  recovered  from  a severe 
illness,  should  take  charge  of  the  Base  Camp. 


CROSSING  THE  DESERT 


9 


The  prefect  of  Arequipa  obligingly  offered  us  a 
military  escort  in  the  person  of  Corporal  Gamarra, 
a full-blooded  Indian  of  rather  more  than  average 
height  and  considerably  more  than  average  courage, 
who  knew  the  country.  As  a member  of  the  mounted 
gendarmerie , Gamarra  had  been  stationed  at  the 
provincial  capital  of  Cotahuasi  a few  months  previ- 
ously. One  day  a mob  of  drunken,  riotous  revolu- 
tionists stormed  the  government  buildings  while  he 
was  on  sentry  duty.  Gamarra  stood  his  ground  and, 
when  they  attempted  to  force  their  way  past  him, 
shot  the  leader  of  the  crowd.  The  mob  scattered. 
A grateful  prefect  made  him  a corporal  and,  realiz- 
ing that  his  life  was  no  longer  safe  in  that  particular 
vicinity,  transferred  him  to  Arequipa.  Like  nearly 
all  of  his  race,  however,  he  fell  an  easy  prey  to  alco- 
hol. There  is  no  doubt  that  the  chief  of  the  mounted 
police  in  Arequipa,  when  ordered  by  the  prefect  to 
furnish  us  an  escort  for  our  journey  across  the 
desert,  was  glad  enough  to  assign  Gamarra  to  us. 
His  courage  could  not  be  called  in  question  even 
though  his  habits  might  lead  him  to  become  trouble- 
some. It  happened  that  Gamarra  did  not  know  we 
were  planning  to  go  to  Cotahuasi.  Had  he  known 
this,  and  also  had  he  suspected  the  trials  that  were 
before  him  on  Mt.  Coropuna,  he  probably  would 
have  begged  off  — but  I am  anticipating. 

On  the  2d  of  October,  Tucker,  Hinckley,  Corporal 
Gamarra  and  I left  Arequipa;  Watkins  followed  a 
week  later.  The  first  stage  of  the  journey  was  by 
train  from  Arequipa  to  Vitor,  a distance  of  thirty 
miles.  The  arrieros  sent  the  cargo  along  too.  In  addi- 


10 


INCA  LAND 


tion  to  the  food-boxes  we  brought  with  us  tents, 
ice  axes,  snowshoes,  barometers,  thermometers, 
transit,  fiber  cases,  steel  boxes,  duffie  bags,  and  a 
folding  boat.  Our  pack  train  was  supposed  to  have 
started  from  Arequipa  the  day  before.  We  hoped  it 
would  reach  Vitor  about  the  same  time  that  we  did, 
but  that  was  expecting  too  much  of  arrieros  on  the 
first  day  of  their  journey.  So  we  had  an  all-day  wait 
near  the  primitive  little  railway  station. 

We  amused  ourselves  wandering  off  over  the 
neighboring  pampa  and  studying  the  medanos , 
crescent-shaped  sand  dunes  which  are  common  in 
the  great  coastal  desert.  One  reads  so  much  of  the 
great  tropical  jungles  of  South  America  and  of  well- 
nigh  impenetrable  forests  that  it  is  difficult  to  re- 
alize that  the  West  Coast  from  Ecuador,  on  the 
north,  to  the  heart  of  Chile,  on  the  south,  is  a great 
desert,  broken  at  intervals  by  oases,  or  valleys  whose 
rivers,  coming  from  melting  snows  of  the  Andes,  are 
here  and  there  diverted  for  purposes  of  irrigation. 
Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru,  is  in  one  of  the  largest 
of  these  oases.  Although  frequently  enveloped  in  a 
damp  fog,  the  Peruvian  coastal  towns  are  almost 
never  subjected  to  rain.  The  causes  of  this  phe- 
nomenon are  easy  to  understand.  Winds  coming 
from  the  east,  laden  with  the  moisture  of  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean  and  the  steaming  Amazon  Basin,  are 
rapidly  cooled  by  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes 
and  forced  to  deposit  this  moisture  in  the  montana . 
By  the  time  the  winds  have  crossed  the  mighty 
cordillera  there  is  no  rain  left  in  them.  Conversely, 
the  winds  that  come  from  the  warm  Pacific  Ocean 


CROSSING  THE  DESERT 


ii 


strike  a cold  area  over  the  frigid  Humboldt  Current, 
which  sweeps  up  along  the  west  coast  of  South 
America.  This  cold  belt  wrings  the  water  out  of  the 
westerly  winds,  so  that  by  the  time  they  reach  the 
warm  land  their  relative  humidity  is  low.  To  be 
sure,  there  are  months  in  some  years  when  so  much 
moisture  falls  on  the  slopes  of  the  coast  range  that 
the  hillsides  are  clothed  with  flowers,  but  this  ver- 
dure lasts  but  a short  time  and  does  not  seriously 
affect  the  great  stretches  of  desert  pampa  in  the 
midst  of  which  we  now  were.  Like  the  other 
pampas  of  this  region,  the  flat  surface  inclines 
toward  the  sea.  Over  it  the  sand  is  rolled  along 
by  the  wind  and  finally  built  into  crescent-shaped 
dunes.  These  medanos  interested  us  greatly. 

The  prevailing  wind  on  the  desert  at  night  is  a 
relatively  gentle  breeze  that  comes  down  from  the 
cool  mountain  slopes  toward  the  ocean.  It  tends 
to  blow  the  lighter  particles  of  sand  along  in  a regu- 
lar dune,  rolling  it  over  and  over  downhill,  leaving 
the  heavier  particles  behind.  This  is  reversed  in  the 
daytime.  As  the  heat  increases  toward  noon,  the 
wind  comes  rushing  up  from  the  ocean  to  fill  the 
vacuum  caused  by  the  rapidly  ascending  currents 
of  hot  air  that  rise  from  the  overheated  pampas. 
During  the  early  afternoon  this  wind  reaches  a high 
velocity  and  swirls  the  sand  along  in  clouds.  It  is 
now  strong  enough  to  move  the  heavier  particles  of 
sand,  uphill.  It  sweeps  the  heaviest  ones  around  the 
base  of  the  dune  and  deposits  them  in  pointed 
ridges  on  either  side.  The  heavier  material  remains 
stationary  at  night  while  the  lighter  particles  are 


12 


INCA  LAND 


rolled  downhill,  but  the  whole  mass  travels  slowly 
uphill  again  during  the  gales  of  the  following  after- 
noon. The  result  is  the  beautiful  crescent-shaped 
medano. 

About  five  o’clock  our  mules,  a fine-looking  lot  — 
far  superior  to  any  that  we  had  been  able  to  secure 
near  Cuzco  — trotted  briskly  into  the  dusty  little 
plaza.  It  took  some  time  to  adjust  the  loads,  and 
it  was  nearly  seven  o’clock  before  we  started  off  in 
the  moonlight  for  the  oasis  of  Vitor.  As  we  left  the 
plateau  and  struck  the  dusty  trail  winding  down 
into  a dark  canyon  we  caught  a glimpse  of  something 
white  shimmering  faintly  on  the  horizon  far  off 
to  the  northwest;  Coropuna!  Shortly  before  nine 
o’clock  we  reached  a little  corral,  where  the  mules 
were  unloaded.  For  ourselves  we  found  a shed  with 
a clean,  stone-paved  floor,  where  we  set  up  our  cots, 
only  to  be  awakened  many  times  during  the  night 
by  passing  caravans  anxious  to  avoid  the  terrible 
heat  of  the  desert  by  day. 

Where  the  oases  are  only  a few  miles  apart  one 
often  travels  by  day,  but  when  crossing  the  desert 
is  a matter  of  eight  or  ten  hours’  steady  jogging  with 
no  places  to  rest,  no  water,  no  shade,  the  pack  ani- 
mals suffer  greatly.  Consequently,  most  caravans 
travel,  so  far  as  possible,  by  night.  Our  first  desert, 
the  pampa  of  Sihuas,  was  reported  to  be  narrow,  so 
we  preferred  to  cross  it  by  day  and  see  what  was  to 
be  seen.  We  got  up  about  half-past  four  and  were 
off  before  seven.  Then  our  troubles  began.  Either 
because  he  lived  in  Arequipa  or  because  they 


MT.  COROPUNA  FROM  THE  NORTHWEST 


CROSSING  THE  DESERT 


13 


thought  he  looked  like  a good  horseman,  or  for 
reasons  best  known  to  themselves,  the  Tejadas  had 
given  Mr.  Hinckley  a very  spirited  saddle-mule. 
The  first  thing  I knew,  her  rider,  carrying  a heavy 
camera,  a package  of  plate-holders,  and  a large 
mercurial  barometer,  borrowed  from  the  Harvard 
Observatory,  was  pitched  headlong  into  the  sand. 
Fortunately  no  damage  was  done,  and  after  a lively 
chase  the  runaway  mule  was  brought  back  by  Cor- 
poral Gamarra.  After  Mr.  Hinckley  was  remounted 
on  his  dangerous  mule  we  rode  on  for  a while  in 
peace,  between  cornfields  and  vineyards,  over  paths 
flanked  by  willows  and  fig  trees.  The  chief  industry 
of  Vitor  is  the  making  of  wine  from  vines  which  date 
back  to  colonial  days.  The  wine  is  aged  in  huge  jars, 
each  over  six  feet  high,  buried  in  the  ground.  We 
had  a glimpse  of  seventeen  of  them  standing  in 
a line,  awaiting  sale.  It  made  one  think  of  Ali 
Baba  and  the  Forty  Thieves,  who  would  have  had 
no  trouble  at  all  hiding  in  these  Cyclopean  crocks. 

The  edge  of  the  oasis  of  Vitor  is  the  contour  line 
along  which  the  irrigating  canal  runs.  There  is  no 
gradual  petering  out  of  foliage.  The  desert  begins 
with  a stunning  crash.  On  one  side  is  the  bright, 
luxurious  green  of  fig  trees  and  vineyards;  on  the 
other  side  is  the  absolute  stark  nakedness  of  the 
sandy  desert.  Within  the  oasis  there  is  an  abund- 
ance of  water.  Much  of  it  runs  to  waste.  The  wine 
growers  receive  more  than  they  can  use;  in  fact, 
more  land  could  easily  be  put  under  cultivation. 
The  chief  difficulties  are  the  scarcity  of  ports  from 
which  produce  can  be  shipped  to  the  outer  world, 


14 


INCA  LAND 


the  expense  of  the  transportation  system  of  pack 
trains  over  the  deserts  which  intervene  between  the 
oases  and  the  railroad,  and  the  lack  of  capital. 
Otherwise  the  irrigation  system  might  be  extended 
over  great  stretches  of  rich,  volcanic  soil,  now  un- 
occupied. 

A steady  climb  of  three  quarters  of  an  hour  took 
us  to  the  northern  rim  of  the  valley.  Here  we  again 
saw  the  snowy  mass  of  Coropuna,  glistening  in  the 
sunlight,  seventy-five  miles  away  to  the  northwest. 
Our  view  was  a short  one,  for  in  less  than  three  min- 
utes we  had  to  descend  another  canyon.  We  crossed 
this  and  climbed  out  on  the  pampa  of  Sihuas.  There 
was  little  to  interest  us  in  our  immediate  surround- 
ings, but  in  the  distance  was  Coropuna,  and  I had 
just  begun  to  study  the  problem  of  possible  routes 
for  climbing  the  highest  peak  when  Mr.  Hinckley’s 
mule  trotted  briskly  across  the  trail  directly  in  front 
of  me,  kicked  up  her  heels,  and  again  sent  him 
sprawling  over  the  sand,  barometer,  camera,  plates, 
and  all.  Unluckily,  this  time  his  foot  caught  in  a 
stirrup  and,  still  holding  the  bridle,  he  was  dragged 
some  distance  before  he  got  it  loose.  He  struggled  to 
his  feet  and  tried  to  keep  the  mule  from  running 
away,  when  a violent  kick  released  his  hold  and 
knocked  him  out.  We  immediately  set  up  our  little 
“Mummery”  tent  on  the  hot,  sandy  floor  of  the 
desert  and  rendered  first-aid  to  the  unlucky  astrono- 
mer. We  found  that  the  sharp  point  of  one  of  the 
vicious  mule’s  new  shoes  had  opened  a large  vein  in 
Mr.  Hinckley’s  leg.  The  cut  was  not  dangerous,  but 
too  deep  for  successful  mountain  climbing.  With 


CROSSING  THE  DESERT 


15 


Gamarra’s  aid,  Mr.  Hinckley  was  able  to  reach  Are- 
quipa  that  night,  but  his  enforced  departure  not 
only  shattered  his  own  hopes  of  climbing  Coropuna, 
but  also  made  us  wonder  how  we  were  going  to 
have  the  necessary  three-men-on-the-rope  when  we 
reached  the  glaciers.  To  be  sure,  there  was  the 
corporal  — but  would  he  go?  Indians  do  not  like 
snow  mountains.  Packing  up  the  tent  again,  we 
resumed  our  course  over  the  desert. 

The  oasis  of  Sihuas,  another  beautiful  garden  in 
the  bottom  of  a huge  canyon,  was  reached  about 
four  o’clock  in  the  afternoon.  We  should  have  been 
compelled  to  camp  in  the  open  with  the  arrieros 
had  not  the  parish  priest  invited  us  to  rest  in  the 
cool  shade  of  his  vine-covered  arbor.  He  graciously 
served  us  with  cakes  and  sweet  native  wine,  and 
asked  us  to  stay  as  long  as  we  liked.  The  desert  of 
Majes,  which  now  lay  ahead  of  us,  is  perhaps  the 
widest,  hottest,  and  most  barren  in  this  region.  Our 
arrieros  were  unwilling  to  cross  it  in  the  daytime. 
They  said  it  was  forty-five  miles  between  water  and 
water.  The  next  day  we  enjoyed  the  hospitality  of 
our  kindly  host  until  after  supper. 

So  sure  are  the  inhabitants  of  these  oases  that  it 
is  not  going  to  rain  that  their  houses  are  built  merely 
as  a shelter  against  the  sun  and  wind.  They  are 
made  of  the  canes  that  grow  in  the  jungles  of  the 
larger  river  bottoms,  or  along  the  banks  of  irrigating 
ditches.  On  the  roof  the  spaces  between  the  canes 
are  filled  with  adobe,  sun-dried  mud.  It  is  not  nec- 
essary to  plaster  the  sides  of  the  houses,  for  it  is 
pleasant  to  let  the  air  have  free  play,  and  it  is  amus- 


i6 


INCA  LAND 


ing  to  look  out  through  the  cracks  and  see  every- 
thing that  is  passing. 

That  evening  we  saddled  in  the  moonlight.  Slowly 
we  climbed  out  of  the  valley,  to  spend  the  night 
jogging  steadily,  hour  after  hour,  across  the  desert. 
As  the  moon  was  setting  we  entered  a hilly  region, 
and  at  sunrise  found  ourselves  in  the  midst  of  a 
tumbled  mass  of  enormous  sand  dunes  — the  result 
of  hundreds  of  medanos  blown  across  the  pampa  of 
Majes  and  deposited  along  the  border  of  the  valley. 
It  took  us  three  hours  to  wind  slowly  down  from 
the  level  of  the  desert  to  a point  where  we  could  see 
the  great  canyon,  a mile  deep  and  two  miles  across. 
Its  steep  sides  are  of  various  colored  rocks  and  sand. 
The  bottom  is  a bright  green  oasis  through  which 
flows  the  rapid  Majes  River,  too  deep  to  be  forded 
even  in  the  dry  season.  A very  large  part  of  the  flood 
plain  of  the  unruly  river  is  not  cultivated,  and  con- 
sists of  a wild  jungle,  difficult  of  access  in  the  dry 
season  and  impossible  when  the  river  rises  during 
the  rainy  months.  The  contrast  between  the  gi- 
gantic hills  of  sand  and  the  luxurious  vegetation  was 
very  striking;  but  to  us  the  most  beautiful  thing  in 
the  landscape  was  the  long,  glistening,  white  mass  of 
Coropuna,  now  much  larger  and  just  visible  above 
the  opposite  rim  of  the  valley. 

At  eight  o’clock  in  the  morning,  as  we  were  won- 
dering how  long  it  would  be  before  we  could  get 
down  to  the  bottom  of  the  valley  and  have  some 
breakfast,  we  discovered,  at  a place  called  Pitas  (or 
Cerro  Colorado),  a huge  volcanic  boulder  covered 
with  rude  pictographs.  Further  search  in  the  vicin- 


CROSSING  THE  DESERT 


1 7 


ity  revealed  about  one  hundred  of  these  boulders, 
each  with  its  quota  of  crude  drawings.  I did  not 
notice  any  ruins  of  houses  near  the  rocks.  Neither 
of  the  Tejada  brothers,  who  had  been  past  here 
many  times,  nor  any  of  the  natives  of  this  region 
appeared  to  have  any  idea  of  the  origin  or  meaning 
of  this  singular  collection  of  pictographic  rocks. 
The  drawings  represented  jaguars,  birds,  men,  and 
dachshund-like  dogs.  They  deserved  careful  study. 
Yet  not  even  the  interest  and  excitement  of  investi- 
gating the  “rocas  jeroglificos,”  as  they  are  called 
here,  could  make  us  forget  that  we  had  had  no  food 
or  sleep  for  a good  many  hours.  So  after  taking  a 
few  pictures  we  hastened  on  and  crossed  the  Majes 
River  on  a very  shaky  temporary  bridge.  It  was 
built  to  last  only  during  the  dry  season.  To  con- 
struct a bridge  which  would  withstand  floods  is  not 
feasible  at  present.  We  spent  the  day  at  Coriri,  a 
pleasant  little  village  where  it  was  almost  impossible 
to  sleep,  on  account  of  the  myriads  of  gnats. 

The  next  day  we  had  a short  ride  along  the  wes- 
tern side  of  the  valley  to  the  town  of  Aplao,  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Castilla,  called  by  its 
present  inhabitants  “ Majes, ” although  on  Rai- 
mondi’s map  that  name  is  applied  only  to  the  river 
and  the  neighboring  desert.  In  1865,  at  the  time  of 
his  visit,  it  had  a bad  reputation  for  disease.  Now 
it  seems  more  healthy.  The  sub-prefect  of  Castilla 
had  been  informed  by  telegraph  of  our  coming,  and 
invited  us  to  an  excellent  dinner. 

The  people  of  Majes  are  largely  of  mixed  white 
and  Indian  ancestry.  Many  of  them  appeared  to 


i8 


INCA  LAND 


| 

be  unusually  businesslike.  The  proprietor  of  one 
establishment  was  a great  admirer  of  American 
shoes,  the  name  of  which  he  pronounced  in  a man- 
ner that  puzzled  us  for  a long  time.  “W”  is  un- 
known in  Spanish  and  the  letters  “a,”  “1,”  and  “k” 
are  never  found  in  juxtaposition.  When  he  asked  us 
what  we  thought  of  “ Valluck-ofair',”  accenting 
strongly  the  last  syllable,  we  could  not  imagine 
what  he  meant.  He  was  equally  at  a loss  to  under- 
stand how  we  could  be  so  stupid  as  not  to  recognize 
immediately  the  well-advertised  name  of  a widely 
known  shoe. 

At  Majes  we  observed  cotton,  which  is  sent  to 
the  mills  at  Arequipa,  alfalfa,  highly  prized  as 
fodder  for  pack  animals,  sugar  cane,  from  which 
aguardiente , or  white  rum,  is  made,  and  grapes.  It  is 
said  that  the  Majes  vineyards  date  back  to  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  that  some  of  the  huge,  buried, 
earthenware  wine  jars  now  in  use  were  made  as  far 
back  as  the  reign  of  Philip  II.  The  presence  of  so 
much  wine  in  the  community  does  not  seem  to  have 
a deleterious  effect  on  the  natives,  who  were  not 
only  hospitable  but  energetic  — far  more  so,  in 
fact,  than  the  natives  of  towns  in  the  high  Andes, 
where  the  intense  cold  and  the  difficulty  of  making  a 
living  have  reacted  upon  the  Indians,  often  causing 
them  to  be  morose,  sullen,  and  without  ambition. 
The  residences  of  the  wine  growers  are  sometimes 
very  misleading.  A typical  country  house  of  the 
better  class  is  not  much  to  look  at.  Its  long,  low, 
flat  roof  and  rough,  unwhitewashed,  mud-colored 
walls  give  it  an  unattractive  appearance;  yet  to 


CROSSING  THE  DESERT 


19 


one’s  intense  surprise  the  inside  may  be  clean  and 
comfortable,  with  modern  furniture,  a piano,  and 
a phonograph. 

Our  conscientious  and  hard-working  arrieros  rose 
at  two  o’clock  the  next  morning,  for  they  knew  their 
mules  had  a long,  hard  climb  ahead  of  them,  from  an 
elevation  of  1000  feet  above  sea  level  to  10,000  feet. 
After  an  all-day  journey  we  camped  at  a place  where 
forage  could  be  obtained.  We  had  now  left  the  re- 
gion of  tropical  products  and  come  back  to  pota- 
toes and  barley.  The  following  day  a short  ride 
brought  us  past  another  pictographic  rock,  recently 
blasted  open  by  an  energetic  “treasure  seeker”  of 
Chuquibamba.  This  town  has  3000  inhabitants 
and  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Condesuyos. 
It  was  the  place  which  we  had  selected  several 
months  before  as  the  rendezvous  for  the  attack  on 
Coropuna.  The  climate  here  is  delightful  and  the 
fruits  and  cereals  of  the  temperate  zone  are  easily 
raised.  The  town  is  surrounded  by  gardens,  vine- 
yards, alfalfa  and  grain  fields;  all  showing  evidence 
of  intensive  cultivation.  It  is  at  the  head  of  one  of 
the  branches  of  the  Majes  Valley  and  is  surrounded 
by  high  cliffs. 

The  people  of  Chuquibamba  were  friendly.  We 
were  kindly  welcomed  by  Senor  Benavides,  the  sub- 
prefect, who  hospitably  told  us  to  set  up  our  cots  in 
the  grand  salon  of  his  own  house.  Here  we  received 
calls  from  the  local  officials,  including  the  provincial 
physician,  Dr.  Pastor,  and  the  director  of  the  Cole- 
gio  Nacional,  Professor  Alejandro  Coello.  The  last 
two  were  keen  to  go  with  us  up  Mt.  Coropuna. 


20 


INCA  LAND 


They  told  us  that  there  was  a hill  near  by  called  the 
Calvario,  whence  the  mountain  could  be  seen,  and 
offered  to  take  us  up  there.  We  accepted,  thinking 
at  the  same  time  that  this  would  show  who  was  best 
fitted  to  join  in  the  climb,  for  we  needed  another 
man  on  the  rope.  Professor  Coello  easily  distanced 
the  rest  of  us  and  won  the  coveted  place. 

From  the  Calvario  hill  we  had  a splendid  view  of 
those  white  solitudes  whither  we  were  bound,  now 
only  twenty-five  miles  away.  It  seemed  clear  that 
the  western  or  truncated  peak,  which  gives  its  name 
to  the  mass  ( koro  = “cut  off  at  the  top”;  puna  — 
“a  cold,  snowy  height”),  was  the  highest  point  of 
the  range,  and  higher  than  all  the  eastern  peaks. 
Yet  behind  the  flat-topped  dome  we  could  just  make 
out  a northerly  peak.  Tucker  wondered  whether  or 
not  that  might  prove  to  be  higher  than  the  western 
peak  which  we  decided  to  climb.  No  one  knew  any- 
thing about  the  mountain.  There  were  no  native 
guides  to  be  had.  The  wildest  opinions  were  ex- 
pressed as  to  the  best  routes  and  methods  of  getting 
to  the  top.  We  finally  engaged  a man  who  said  he 
knew  how  to  get  to  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  so  we 
called  him  “guide”  for  want  of  a more  appropriate 
title.  The  Peruvian  spring  was  now  well  advanced 
and  the  days  were  fine  and  clear.  It  appeared,  how- 
ever, that  there  had  been  a heavy  snowstorm  on  the 
mountain  a few  days  before.  If  summer  were  com- 
ing unusually  early  it  behooved  us  to  waste  no  time, 
and  we  proceeded  to  arrange  the  mountain  equip- 
ment as  fast  as  possible. 

Our  instruments  for  determining  altitude  con- 


CROSSING  THE  DESERT 


21 


sisted  of  a special  mountain-mercurial  barometer 
made  by  Mr.  Henry  J.  Green,  of  Brooklyn,  capable 
of  recording  only  such  air  pressures  as  one  might 
expect  to  find  above  12,000  feet;  a hypsometer 
loaned  us  by  the  Department  of  Terrestrial  Mag- 
netism of  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington, 
with  thermometers  especially  made  for  us  by  Green ; 
a large  mercurial  barometer,  borrowed  from  the 
Harvard  Observatory,  which,  notwithstanding  its 
rough  treatment  by  Mr.  Hinckley’s  mule,  was  still 
doing  good  service;  and  one  of  Green’s  sling  psy- 
chrometers.  Our  most  serious  want  was  an  aneroid, 
in  case  the  fragile  mercurials  should  get  broken. 
Six  months  previously  I had  written  to  J.  Hicks, 
the  celebrated  instrument  maker  of  London,  asking 
him  to  construct,  with  special  care,  two  large 
u Watkins”  aneroids  capable  of  recording  altitudes 
five  thousand  feet  higher  than  Coropuna  was  sup- 
posed to  be.  His  reply  had  never  reached  me,  nor 
did  any  one  in  Arequipa  know  anything  about  the 
barometers.  Apparently  my  letter  had  miscarried. 
It  was  not  until  we  opened  our  specially  ordered 
1 ‘mountain  grub”  boxes  here  in  Chuquibamba  that 
we  found,  alongside  of  the  pemmican  and  self-heat- 
ing  tins  of  stew  which  had  been  packed  for  us  in 
London  by  Grace  Brothers,  the  two  precious  aner- 
oids, each  as  large  as  a big  alarm  clock.  With  these 
two  new  aneroids,  made  with  a wide  margin  of 
safety,  we  felt  satisfied  that,  once  at  the  summit, 
we  should  know  whether  there  was  a chance  that 
Bandelier  was  right  and  this  was  indeed  the  top  of 
America. 


22 


INCA  LAND 


For  exact  measurements  we  depended  on  Topog- 
rapher Hendriksen,  who  was  due  to  triangulate 
Coropuna  in  the  course  of  his  survey  along  the  73d 
meridian.  My  chief  excuse  for  going  up  the  moun- 
tain was  to  erect  a signal  at  or  near  the  top  which 
Hendriksen  could  use  as  a station  in  order  to  make 
his  triangulation  more  exact.  My  real  object,  it 
must  be  confessed,  was  to  enjoy  the  satisfaction, 
which  all  Alpinists  feel,  of  conquering  a “ virgin 
peak.” 


CHAPTER  II 

CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


THE  desert  plateau  above  Chuquibamba  Is  nearly 
2500  feet  higher  than  the  town,  and  it  was  nine 
o’clock  on  the  morning  of  October  10th  before  we 
got  out  of  the  valley.  Thereafter  Coropuna  was 
always  in  sight,  and  as  we  slowly  approached  it  we 
studied  it  with  care.  The  plateau  has  an  elevation 
of  over  15,000  feet,  yet  the  mountain  stood  out 
conspicuously  above  it.  Coropuna  is  really  a range 
about  twenty  miles  long.  Its  gigantic  massif  was 
covered  with  snow  fields  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
So  deep  did  the  fresh  snow  lie  that  it  was  generally 
impossible  to  see  where  snow  fields  ended  and  gla- 
ciers began.  We  could  see  that  of  the  five  well- 
defined  peaks  the  middle  one  was  probably  the  low- 
est. The  two  next  highest  are  at  the  right,  or  east- 
ern, end  of  the  massif.  The  culminating  truncated 
dome  at  the  western  end,  with  its  smooth,  uneroded 
sides,  apparently  belonged  to  a later  volcanic  period 
than  the  rest  of  the  mountain.  It  seemed  to  be  the 
highest  peak  of  all.  To  reach  it  did  not  appear  to  be 
difficult.  Rock-covered  slopes  ran  directly  up  to  the 
snow.  Snow  fields,  without  many  rock-falls,  ap- 
peared to  culminate  in  a saddle  at  the  base  of  the 
great  snowy  dome.  The  eastern  slope  of  the  dome 
itself  offered  an  unbroken,  if  steep,  path  to  the  top. 
If  we  could  once  reach  the  snow  line,  it  looked  as 


24 


INCA  LAND 


though,  with  the  aid  of  ice-creepers  or  snowshoes, 
we  could  climb  the  mountain  without  serious  trouble. 

Between  us  and  the  first  snow-covered  slopes, 
however,  lay  more  than  twenty  miles  of  volcanic 
desert  intersected  by  deep  canyons,  steep  quebradas, 
and  very  rough  aa  lava.  Directed  by  our  “guide,” 
we  left  the  Cotahuasi  road  and  struck  across 
country,  dodging  the  lava  flows  and  slowly  ascend- 
ing the  gentle  slope  of  the  plateau.  As  it  became 
steeper  our  mules  showed  signs  of  suffering.  While 
waiting  for  them  to  get  their  wind  we  went  ahead  on 
foot,  climbed  a short  rise,  and  to  our  surprise  and 
chagrin  found  ourselves  on  the  rim  of  a steep-walled 
canyon,  1500  feet  deep,  which  cut  right  across  in 
front  of  the  mountain  and  lay  between  us  and  its 
higher  slopes.  After  the  mules  had  rested,  the  guide 
now  decided  to  turn  to  the  left  instead  of  going 
straight  toward  the  mountain.  A dispute  ensued  as 
to  how  much  he  knew,  even  about  the  foot  of  Coro- 
puna.  He  denied  that  there  were  any  huts  what- 
ever in  the  canyon.  “ Abandonado',  despoblado ; de- 
sierto.”  “A  waste;  a solitude;  a wilderness.”  So  he 
described  it.  Had  he  been  there?  “No,  Senor.” 
Luckily  we  had  been  able  to  make  out  from  the  rim 
of  the  canyon  two  or  three  huts  near  a little  stream. 
As  there  was  no  question  that  we  ought  to  get  to  the 
snow  line  as  soon  as  possible,  we  decided  to  dispense 
with  the  services  of  so  well-informed  a “guide,”  and 
make  such  way  as  we  could  alone.  The  altitude  of 
the  rim  of  the  canyon  was  16,000  feet;  the  mules 
showed  signs  of  acute  distress  from  mountain  sick- 
ness. The  arrieros  began  to  complain  loudly,  but 


MT.  COROPUNA  FROM  THE  SOUTH 


>• 


V 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


25 


did  what  they  could  to  relieve  the  mules  by  punch- 
ing holes  in  their  ears ; the  theory  being  that  blood- 
letting is  a good  thing  for  soroche . As  soon  as  the 
timid  arrieros  reached  a point  where  they  could  see 
down  into  the  canyon,  they  spotted  some  patches 
of  green  pasture,  cheered  up  a bit,  and  even  smiled 
over  the  dismal  ignorance  of  the  “guide.”  Soon  we 
found  a trail  which  led  to  the  huts. 

Near  the  huts  was  a taciturn  Indian  woman,  who 
refused  to  furnish  us  with  either  fuel  or  forage, 
although  we  tried  to  pay  in  advance  and  offered  her 
silver.  Nevertheless,  we  proceeded  to  pitch  our 
tents  and  took  advantage  of  the  sheltering  stone 
wall  of  her  corral  for  our  camp  fire.  After  peace  had 
settled  down  and  it  became  perfectly  evident  that 
we  were  harmless,  the  door  of  one  of  the  huts  opened 
and  an  Indian  man  appeared.  Doubtless  the  cause 
of  his  disappearance  before  our  arrival  had  been  the 
easily  discernible  presence  in  our  midst  of  the  brass 
buttons  of  Corporal  Gamarra.  Possibly  he  who  had 
selected  this  remote  corner  of  the  wilderness  for  his 
abode  had  a guilty  conscience  and  at  the  sight  of  a 
gendarme  decided  that  he  had  better  hide  at  once. 
More  probably,  however,  he  feared  the  visit  of  a 
recruiting  party,  since  it  is  quite  likely  that  he  had 
not  served  his  legal  term  of  military  service.  At  all 
events,  when  his  wife  discovered  that  we  were  not 
looking  for  her  man,  she  allowed  his  curiosity  to 
overcome  his  fears.  We  found  that  the  Indians  kept 
a few  llamas.  They  also  made  crude  pottery,  firing 
it  with  straw  and  llama  dung.  They  lived  almost 
entirely  on  gruel  made  from  chuho , frozen  bitter 


26 


INCA  LAND 


potatoes.  Little  else  than  potatoes  will  grow  at 
14,000  feet  above  the  sea.  For  neighbors  the  In- 
dians had  a solitary  old  man,  who  lived  half  a mile 
up  nearer  the  glaciers,  and  a small  family,  a mile 
and  a half  down  the  valley. 

Before  dark  the  neighbors  came  to  call,  and  we 
tried  our  best  to  persuade  the  men  to  accompany  us 
up  the  mountain  and  help  to  carry  the  loads  from 
the  point  where  the  mules  would  have  to  stop ; but 
they  declined  absolutely  and  positively.  I think  one 
of  the  men  might  have  gone,  but  as  soon  as  his  quiet, 
well-behaved  wife  saw  him  wavering  she  broke  out 
in  a torrent  of  violent  denunciation,  telling  him  the 
mountain  would  “eat  him  up”  and  that  unless  he 
wanted  to  go  to  heaven  before  his  time  he  had  better 
let  well  enough  alone  and  stay  where  he  was.  Cieza 
de  Leon,  one  of  the  most  careful  of  the  early  chron- 
iclers (1550),  says  that  at  Coropuna  “the  devil” 
talks  “more  freely”  than  usual.  “For  some  secret 
reason  known  to  God,  it  is  said  that  devils  walk 
visibly  about  in  that  place,  and  that  the  Indians  see 
them  and  are  much  terrified.  I have  also  heard  that 
these  devils  have  appeared  to  Christians  in  the  form 
of  Indians.”  Perhaps  the  voluble  housewife  was  her- 
self one  of  the  famous  Coropuna  devils.  She  cer- 
tainly talked  “more  freely”  than  usual.  Or  possibly 
she  thought  that  the  Coropuna  “devils”  were  now 
appearing  to  Indians  “in  the  form  of”  Christians! 
Anyhow  the  Indians  said  that  on  top  of  Coropuna 
there  was  a delightful,  warm  paradise  containing 
beautiful  flowers,  luscious  fruits,  parrots  of  brilliant 
plumage,  macaws,  and  even  monkeys,  those  faithful 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


27 


denizens  of  hot  climates.  The  souls  of  the  departed 
stop  to  rest  and  enjoy  themselves  in  this  charming 
spot  on  their  upward  flight.  Like  most  primitive 
people  who  live  near  snow-capped  mountains,  they 
had  an  abject  terror  of  the  forbidding  summits  and 
the  snowstorms  that  seem  to  come  down  from  them. 
Probably  the  Indians  hope  to  propitiate  the  de- 
mons who  dwell  on  the  mountain  tops  by  invent- 
ing charming  stories  relating  to  their  abode.  It  is  in- 
teresting to  learn  that  in  the  neighboring  hamlet  of 
Pampacolca,  the  great  explorer  Raimondi,  in  1865, 
found  the  natives  “exiled  from  the  civilized  world, 
still  preserving  their  primitive  customs  . . . carry- 
ing idols  to  the  slopes  of  the  great  snow  mountain 
Coropuna,  and  there  offering  them  as  a sacrifice.’ ’ 
Apparently  the  mountain  still  inspires  fear  in  the 
hearts  of  all  those  who  live  near  it. 

The  fact  that  we  agreed  to  pay  in  advance 
unheard-of  wages,  ten  times  the  usual  amount 
earned  by  laborers  in  this  vicinity,  that  we  added 
offers  of  the  precious  coca  leaves,  the  greatly-to-be- 
desired  “fire-water,”  the  rarely  seen  tobacco,  and 
other  good  things  usually  coveted  by  Peruvian 
highlanders,  had  no  effect  in  the  face  of  the  terrors 
of  the  mountain.  They  knew  only  too  well  that 
snow-blindness  was  one  of  the  least  of  ills  to  be 
encountered;  while  the  advantages  of  dark-colored 
glasses,  warm  clothes,  kerosene  stoves,  and  plenty 
of  good  food,  which  we  freely  offered,  were  far  too 
remote  from  the  realm  of  credible  possibilities. 
Professor  Coello  understood  all  these  matters  per- 
fectly and,  being  able  to  speak  Quichua,  the  lan- 


28 


INCA  LAND 


guage  of  our  prospective  carriers,  did  his  best  in  the 
way  of  argument,  not  only  out  of  loyalty  to  the 
Expedition,  but  because  Peruvian  gentlemen  always 
regard  the  carrying  of  a load  as  extremely  undig- 
nified and  improper.  I have  known  one  of  the 
most  energetic  and  efficient  business  men  in  Peru, 
a highly  respected  gentleman  in  a mountain  city, 
so  to  dislike  being  obliged  to  carry  a rolled  and  un- 
mounted photograph,  little  larger  than  a lead  pencil, 
that  he  sent  for  a cargador , an  Indian  porter,  to 
bear  it  for  him ! 

As  a matter  of  fact,  Professor  Coello  was  per- 
fectly willing  to  do  his  share  and  more ; but  neither 
he  nor  we  were  anxious  to  climb  with  heavy  packs  on 
our  backs,  in  the  rarefied  air  of  elevations  several 
thousand  feet  higher  than  Mont  Blanc.  The  argu- 
ment with  the  Indians  was  long  and  verbose  and  the 
offerings  of  money  and  goods  were  made  more  and 
more  generous.  All  was  in  vain.  We  finally  came  to 
realize  that  whatever  supplies  and  provisions  were 
carried  up  Coropuna  would  have  to  be  borne  on  our 
own  shoulders.  That  evening  the  top  of  the  trun- 
cated dome,  which  was  just  visible  from  the  valley 
near  our  camp,  was  bathed  in  a roseate  Alpine  glow, 
unspeakably  beautiful.  The  air,  however,  was  very 
bitter  and  the  neighboring  brook  froze  solid.  Dur- 
ing the  night  the  gendarme's  mule  became  homesick 
and  disappeared  with  Coello’s  horse.  Gamarra  was 
sent  to  look  for  the  strays,  with  orders  to  follow  us 
as  soon  as  possible. 

As  no  bearers  or  carriers  were  to  be  secured,  it  was 
essential  to  persuade  the  Tejadas  to  take  their  pack 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


29 


mules  up  as  far  as  the  snow,  a feat  they  declined  to 
do.  The  mules,  Don  Pablo  said,  had  already  gone  as 
far  as  and  farther  than  mules  had  any  business  to  go. 
Soon  after  reaching  camp  Tucker  had  gone  off  on  a 
reconnaissance.  He  reported  that  there  was  a path 
leading  out  of  the  canyon  up  to  the  llama  pastures 
on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains.  The  arrieros 
denied  the  accuracy  of  his  observations.  However, 
after  a long  argument,  they  agreed  to  go  as  far  as 
there  was  a good  path,  and  no  farther.  There  was 
no  question  of  our  riding.  It  was  simply  a case  of 
getting  the  loads  as  high  up  as  possible  before  we 
had  to  begin  to  carry  them  ourselves.  It  may  be 
imagined  that  the  arrieros  packed  very  slowly  and 
grudgingly,  although  the  loads  were  now  consider- 
ably reduced.  Finally,  leaving  behind  our  saddles, 
ordinary  supplies,  and  everything  not  considered 
absolutely  necessary  for  a two  weeks’  stay  on  the 
mountain,  we  set  off. 

We  could  easily  walk  faster  than  the  loaded 
mules,  and  thought  it  best  to  avoid  trouble  by 
keeping  far  enough  ahead  so  as  not  to  hear  the 
arrieros ’ constant  complaints.  After  an  hour  of  not 
very  hard  climbing  over  a fairly  good  llama  trail,  the 
Tejadas  stopped  at  the  edge  of  the  pastures  and 
shouted  to  us  to  come  back.  We  replied  equally 
vociferously,  calling  them  to  come  ahead,  which 
they  did  for  half  an  hour  more,  slowly  zigzagging 
up  a slope  of  coarse,  black  volcanic  sand.  Then 
they  not  only  stopped  but  commenced  to  unload  the 
mules.  It  was  necessary  to  rush  back  and  com- 
mence a violent  and  acrimonious  dispute  as  to 


30 


INCA  LAND 


whether  the  letter  of  the  contract  had  been  fulfilled 
and  the  mules  had  gone  “as  far  as  they  could  reason- 
ably be  expected  to  go.”  The  truth  was,  the  Teja- 
das were  terrified  at  approaching  mysterious  Coro- 
puna.  They  were  sure  it  would  take  revenge  on 
them  by  destroying  their  mules,  who  would  “cer- 
tainly die  the  following  day  of  soroche .”  We  offered 
a bonus  of  thirty  soles  — fifteen  dollars  — if  they 
would  go  on  for  another  hour,  and  threatened  them 
with  all  sorts  of  things  if  they  would  not.  At  last 
they  readjusted  the  loads  and  started  climbing 
again. 

The  altitude  was  now  about  16,000  feet,  but  at 
the  foot  of  a steep  little  rise  the  arrieros  stopped 
again.  This  time  they  succeeded  in  unloading  two 
mules  before  we  could  scramble  down  over  the  sand 
and  boulders  to  stop  them.  Threats  and  prayers 
were  now  of  no  avail.  The  only  thing  that  would 
satisfy  was  a legal  document!  They  demanded  an 
agreement  “in  writing”  that  in  case  any  mule  or 
mules  died  as  a result  of  this  foolish  attempt  to 
get  up  to  the  snow  line,  I should  pay  in  gold  two 
hundred  soles  for  each  and  every  mule  that  died. 
Further,  I must  agree  to  pay  a bonus  of  fifty  soles 
if  they  would  keep  climbing  until  noon  or  until 
stopped  by  snow.  This  document,  having  been  duly 
drawn  up  by  Professor  Coello,  seated  on  a lava  rock 
amidst  the  clinkerlike  cinders  of  the  old  volcano,  was 
duly  signed  and  sealed.  In  order  that  there  might 
be  no  dispute  as  to  the  time,  my  best  chronometer 
was  handed  over  to  Pablo  Tejada  to  carry  until 
noon.  The  mules  were  reloaded  and  again  the  ascent 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


3i 


began.  Presently  the  mules  encountered  some 
pretty  bad  going,  on  a steep  slope  covered  with 
huge  lava  boulders  and  scoriaceous  sand.  We  ex- 
pected more  trouble  every  minute.  However,  the 
arrieros , having  made  an  advantageous  bargain,  did 
their  best  to  carry  it  out.  Fortunately  the  mules 
reached  the  snow  line  just  fifteen  minutes  before 
twelve  o’clock.  The  Tejadas  lost  no  time  in  unload- 
ing, claimed  their  bonus,  promised  to  return  in  ten 
days,  and  almost  before  we  knew  it  had  disappeared 
down  the  side  of  the  mountain. 

We  spent  the  afternoon  establishing  our  Base 
Camp.  We  had  three  tents,  the  “Mummery,”  a 
very  light  and  diminutive  wall  tent  about  four  feet 
high,  made  by  Edgington  of  London;  an  ordinary 
wall  tent,  7 by  7,  of  fairly  heavy  material,  with  floor 
sewed  in ; and  an  improved  pyramidal  tent,  made  by 
David  Abercrombie,  but  designed  by  Mr.  Tucker 
after  one  used  on  Mt.  McKinley  by  Professor 
Parker.  Tucker’s  tent  had  two  openings  — a small 
vent  in  the  top  of  the  pyramid,  capable  of  being 
closed  by  an  adjustable  cap  in  case  of  storm,  and  an 
oval  entrance  through  which  one  had  to  crawl. 
This  opening  could  be  closed  to  any  desired  extent 
with  a pucker  string.  A fairly  heavy,  waterproof 
floor,  measuring  7 by  7,  was  sewed  to  the  base  of  the 
pyramid  so  that  a single  pole,  without  guy  ropes, 
was  all  that  was  necessary  to  keep  the  tent  upright 
after  the  floor  had  been  securely  pegged  to  the 
ground,  or  snow.  Tucker’s  tent  offered  the  advan- 
tages of  being  carried  without  difficulty,  easily 
erected  by  one  man,  readily  ventilated  and  yet 


32 


INCA  LAND 


giving  shelter  to  four  men  in  any  weather.  We  pro- 
posed to  leave  the  wall  tent  at  the  Base,  but  to  take 
the  pyramidal  tent  with  us  on  the  climb.  We  de- 
termined to  carry  the  “Mummery”  to  the  top  of 
the  mountain  to  use  while  taking  observations. 

The  elevation  of  the  Base  Camp  was  17,300  feet. 
We  were  surprised  and  pleased  to  find  that  at  first 
we  had  good  appetites  and  no  soroche.  Less  than  a 
hundred  yards  from  the  wall  tent  was  a small 
diurnal  stream,  fed  by  melting  snow.  Whenever  I 
went  to  get  water  for  cooking  or  washing  purposes 
I noticed  a startling  and  rapid  rise  in  pulse  and 
increasing  shortness  of  breath.  My  normal  pulse  is 
70.  After  I walked  slowly  a hundred  feet  on  a level 
at  this  altitude  it  rose  to  120.  After  I had  been 
seated  awhile  it  dropped  down  to  100.  Gradually 
our  sense  of  well-being  departed  and  was  followed  by 
a feeling  of  malaise  and  general  disability.  There 
was  a splendid  sunset,  but  we  were  too  sick  and  cold 
to  enjoy  it.  That  night  all  slept  badly  and  had  some 
headache.  A high  wind  swept  around  the  mountain 
and  threatened  to  carry  away  both  of  our  tents.  As 
we  lay  awake,  wondering  at  what  moment  we 
should  find  ourselves  deserted  by  the  frail  canvas 
shelters,  we  could  not  help  thinking  that  Coropuna 
was  giving  us  a fair  warning  of  what  might  happen 
higher  up. 

For  breakfast  we  had  pemmican,  hard-tack,  pea 
soup  and  tea.  We  all  wanted  plenty  of  sugar  in  our 
tea  and  drank  large  quantities  of  it.  Experience  on 
Mt.  McKinley  had  led  Tucker  to  believe  heartily 
in  the  advantages  of  pemmican,  a food  especially 


THE  BASE  CAMP,  COROPUNA,  AT  CAMPING  AT  18,450  FEET  ON  THE 

I7,300  FEET  SLOPES  OF  COROPUNA 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


33 


prepared  for  Arctic  explorers.  Neither  Coello  nor 
Gamarra  nor  I had  ever  tasted  it  before.  We  de- 
cided that  it  is  not  very  palatable  on  first  acquaint- 
ance. Although  doubtless  of  great  value  when  one 
has  to  spend  long  periods  of  time  in  the  Arctic, 
where  even  seal’s  blubber  is  a delicacy  “as  good  as 
cow’s  cream,”  I presume  we  could  have  done  just 
as  well  without  it. 

It  was  decided  to  carry  with  us  from  the  Base 
enough  fuel  and  supplies  to  last  through  any  pos- 
sible misadventure,  even  of  a week’s  duration. 
Accounts  of  climbs  in  the  high  Andes  are  full  of 
failures  due  to  the  necessity  of  the  explorers’  being 
obliged  to  return  to  food,  warmth,  and  shelter 
before  having  effected  the  conquest  of  a new  peak. 
One  remembers  the  frequent  disappointments  that 
came  to  such  intrepid  climbers  as  Whymper  in 
Ecuador,  Martin  Conway  in  Bolivia  and  Fitzgerald 
in  Chile  and  Argentina,  due  to  high  winds,  the 
sudden  advent  of  terrific  snowstorms  and  the  weak- 
ness caused  by  soroche.  At  the  cost  of  carrying 
extra-heavy  loads  we  determined  to  try  to  avoid 
being  obliged  to  turn  back.  We  could  only  hope 
that  no  unforeseen  event  would  finally  defeat  our 
efforts. 

Tucker  decided  to  establish  a cache  of  food  and 
fuel  as  far  up  the  mountain  side  as  he  and  Coello 
could  carry  fifty  pounds  in  a single  day’s  climb. 
Leaving  me  to  reset  the  demoralized  tents  and  do 
other  chores,  they  started  off,  packing  loads  of 
about  twenty-five  pounds  each.  To  me  their  prog- 
ress up  the  mountain  side  seemed  extraordinarily 


34 


INCA  LAND 


slow.  Were  they  never  going  to  get  anywhere? 
Their  frequent  stops  seemed  ludicrous.  I was  to 
learn  later  that  it  is  as  difficult  at  a high  elevation 
for  one  who  is  not  climbing  to  have  any  sympathy 
for  those  suffering  from  soroche  as  it  is  for  a sailor 
to  appreciate  the  sensations  of  one  who  is  seasick. 

During  the  morning  I set  up  the  barometers  and 
took  a series  of  observations.  It  was  pleasant  to 
note  that  the  two  new  mountain  aneroids  registered 
exactly  alike.  All  the  different  units  of  the  cargo 
that  was  to  be  taken  up  the  mountain  then  had  to  be 
weighed,  so  that  they  might  be  equitably  distributed 
in  our  loads  the  following  day.  We  had  two  small 
kerosene  stoves  with  Primus  burners.  Our  grub, 
ordered  months  before,  specially  for  this  climb,  con- 
sisted of  pemmican  in  8]/\ -pound  tins,  Kola  choco- 
late in  half-pound  tins,  seeded  raisins  in  i -pound 
tins,  cube  sugar  in  4-pound  tins,  hard-tack  in  6>£- 
pound  tins,  jam,  sticks  of  dried  pea  soup,  Plasmon 
biscuit,  tea,  and  a few  of  Silver’s  self-heating  “mess- 
tins”  containing  Irish  stew,  beef  a la  mode,  et  al. 
Corporal  Gamarra  appeared  during  the  day,  having 
found  his  mule,  which  had  strayed  twelve  miles 
down  the  canyon.  He  did  not  relish  the  prospect  of 
climbing  Coropuna,  but  when  he  saw  the  warm 
clothes  which  we  had  provided  for  him  and  learned 
that  he  would  get  a bonus  of  five  gold  sovereigns  on 
top  of  the  mountain,  he  decided  to  accept  his  duties 
philosophically. 

Tucker  and  Coello  returned  in  the  middle  of  the 
afternoon,  reported  that  there  seemed  to  be  no  seri- 
ous difficulties  in  the  first  part  of  the  climb  and  that 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


35 


a cache  had  been  established  about  2000  feet  above 
the  Base  Camp,  on  a snow  field.  Tucker  now  as- 
signed our  packs  for  the  morrow  and  skillfully  pre- 
pared the  tump-lines  and  harness  with  which  we 
were  to  carry  them. 

Notwithstanding  an  unusual  headache  which 
lasted  all  day  long,  I still  had  some  appetite.  Our 
supper  consisted  of  pemmican  pudding  with  raisins, 
hard-tack  and  pea  soup,  which  every  one  was  able  to 
eat,  if  not  to  enjoy.  That  night  we  slept  better,  one 
reason  being  that  the  wind  did  not  blow  as  hard  as  it 
had  the  night  before.  The  weather  continued  fine. 
Watkins  was  due  to  arrive  from  Arequipa  in  a day 
or  two,  but  we  decided  not  to  wait  for  him  or  run  any 
further  risk  of  encountering  an  early  summer  snow- 
storm. The  next  morning,  after  adjusting  our  fifty- 
pound  loads  to  our  unaccustomed  backs,  we  left 
camp  about  nine  o’clock.  We  wore  Appalachian 
Mountain  Club  snow-creepers,  or  crampons , heavy 
Scotch  mittens,  knit  woolen  helmets,  dark  blue 
snow-glasses,  and  very  heavy  clothing.  It  will  be 
remembered  by  visitors  to  the  Zermatt  Museum 
that  the  Swiss  guides  who  once  climbed  Huascaran, 
in  the  northern  Peruvian  Andes,  had  been  maimed 
for  life  by  their  experiences  in  the  deep  snows  of 
those  great  altitudes.  We  determined  to  take  no 
chances,  and  in  order  to  prevent  the  possibility  of 
frost-bite  each  man  was  ordered  to  put  on  four  pairs 
of  heavy  woolen  socks  and  two  or  three  pairs  of 
heavy  underdrawers. 

Professor  Coello  and  Corporal  Gamarra  wore 
large,  heavy  boots.  I had  woolen  puttees  and 


INCA  LAND 


36 

“Arctic”  overshoes.  Tucker  improvised  what  he 
regarded  as  highly  satisfactory  sandals  out  of  felt 
slippers  and  pieces  of  a rubber  poncho.  Since  there 
seemed  to  be  no  rock-climbing  ahead  of  us,  we 
decided  to  depend  on  crampons  rather  than  on  the 
heavy  hob-nailed  climbing  boots  with  which  Alpin- 
ists are  familiar. 

The  snow  was  very  hard  until  about  one  o’clock. 
By  three  o’clock  it  was  so  soft  as  to  make  further 
progress  impossible.  We  found  that,  loaded  as  we 
were,  we  could  not  climb  a gentle  rise  faster  than 
twenty  steps  at  a time.  On  the  more  level  snow 
fields  we  took  twenty-five  or  thirty  steps  before 
stopping  to  rest.  At  the  end  of  each  stint  it  seemed 
as  though  they  would  be  the  last  steps  we  should 
ever  take.  Panting  violently,  fatigued  beyond 
belief,  and  overcome  with  mountain-sickness,  we 
would  stop  and  lean  on  our  ice  axes  until  able  to 
take  twenty-five  steps  more. 

It  did  not  take  very  long  to  recover  one’s  wind. 
Finally  we  reached  a glacier  marked  by  a network  of 
crevasses,  none  very  wide,  and  nearly  all  covered 
with  snow-bridges.  We  were  roped  together,  and 
although  there  was  an  occasional  fall  no  great  strain 
was  put  on  the  rope.  Then  came  great  snow  fields 
with  not  a single  crevasse.  For  the  most  part  our 
day  was  simply  an  unending  succession  of  stints  — 
twenty-five  steps  and  a rest,  repeated  four  or  five 
times  and  followed  by  thirty-five  steps  and  a longer 
rest,  taken  lying  down  in  the  snow.  We  pegged 
along  until  about  half-past  two,  when  the  rapidly 
melting  snow  stopped  all  progress.  At  an  altitude 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


37 


of  about  18,450  feet,  the  Tucker  tent  was  pitched  on 
a fairly  level  snow  field.  We  now  noticed  with  dis- 
may that  the  two  big  aneroids  had  begun  to  differ. 
As  the  sun  declined  the  temperature  fell  rapidly. 
At  half-past  five  the  thermometer  stood  at  220  F. 
During  the  night  the  minimum  thermometer  reg- 
istered 90  F.  We  noticed  a considerable  number 
of  lightning  flashes  in  the  northeast.  They  were 
not  accompanied  by  any  thunder,  but  alarmed  us 
considerably.  We  feared  the  expected  November 
storms  might  be  ahead  of  time.  We  closed  the  tent 
door  on  account  of  a biting  wind.  Owing  to  the 
ventilating  device  at  the  top  of  the  tent,  we  man- 
aged to  breathe  fairly  well.  Mountain  climbers  at 
high  altitudes  have  occasionally  observed  that  one 
of  the  symptoms  of  acute  soroche  is  a very  annoying, 
racking  cough,  as  violent  as  whooping  cough  and 
frequently  accompanied  by  nausea.  We  had  not 
experienced  this  at  17,000  feet,  but  now  it  began  to 
be  painfully  noticeable,  and  continued  during  the 
ensuing  days  and  nights,  particularly  nights,  until 
we  got  back  to  the  Indians’  huts  again.  We  slept 
very  poorly  and  continually  awakened  one  another 
by  coughing. 

The  next  morning  we  had  very  little  appetite,  no 
ambition,  and  a miserable  sense  of  malaise  and  great 
fatigue.  There  was  nothing  for  it  but  to  shoulder 
our  packs,  arrange  our  tump-lines,  and  proceed  with 
the  same  steady  drudgery  — now  a little  harder 
than  the  day  before.  We  broke  camp  at  half-past 
seven  and  by  noon  had  reached  an  altitude  of  about 
20,000  feet,  on  a snow  field  within  a mile  of  the 


INCA  LAND 


33 

saddle  between  the  great  truncated  peak  and  the 
rest  of  the  range.  It  looked  possible  to  reach  the 
summit  in  one  more  day's  climb  from  here.  The 
aneroids  now  differed  by  over  five  hundred  feet. 
Leaving  me  to  pitch  the  tent,  the  others  went  back 
to  the  cache  to  bring  up  some  of  the  supplies.  Due 
to  the  fact  that  we  were  carrying  loads  twice  as 
heavy  as  those  which  Tucker  and  Coello  had  first 
brought  up,  we  had  not  passed  their  cache  until 
to-day.  By  the  time  my  companions  appeared 
again  I was  so  completely  rested  that  I marveled  at 
the  snail-like  pace  they  made  over  the  nearly  level 
snow  field.  It  seemed  incredible  that  they  should 
find  it  necessary  to  rest  four  times  after  they  were 
within  one  hundred  yards  of  the  camp. 

We  were  none  of  us  hungry  that  evening.  We 
craved  sweet  tea.  Before  turning  in  for  the  night 
we  took  the  trouble  to  melt  snow  and  make  a potful 
of  tea  which  could  be  warmed  up  the  first  thing  in 
the  morning.  We  passed  another  very  bad  night. 
The  thermometer  registered  7°  F.,  but  we  did  not 
suffer  from  the  cold.  In  fact,  when  you  stow  away 
four  men  on  the  floor  of  a 7 by  7 tent  they  are  obliged 
to  sleep  so  close  together  as  to  keep  warm.  Further- 
more, each  man  had  an  eiderdown  sleeping-bag, 
blankets,  and  plenty  of  heavy  clothes  and  sweaters. 
We  did,  however,  suffer  from  soroche.  Violent 
whooping  cough  assailed  us  at  frequent  intervals. 
None  of  us  slept  much.  I amused  myself  by  count- 
ing my  pulse  occasionally,  only  to  find  that  it 
persistently  refused  to  go  below  120,  and  if  I moved 
would  jump  up  to  135.  I don’t  know  where  it  went 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA  39 

on  the  actual  climb.  So  far  as  I could  determine,  it 
did  not  go  below  120  for  four  days  and  nights. 

On  the  morning  of  October  15th  we  got  up  at 
three  o’clock.  Hot  sweet  tea  was  the  one  thing  we  all 
craved.  The  tea-pot  was  found  to  be  frozen  solid, 
although  it  had  been  hung  up  in  the  tent.  It  took  an 
hour  to  thaw  and  the  tea  was  just  warm  enough  for 
practical  purposes  when  I made  an  awkward  move 
in  the  crowded  tent  and  kicked  over  the  tea-pot! 
Never  did  men  keep  their  tempers  better  under 
more  aggravating  circumstances.  Not  a word  of  re- 
proach or  indignation  greeted  my  clumsy  accident, 
although  poor  Corporal  Gamarra,  who  was  lying 
on  the  down  side  of  the  tent,  had  to  beat  a hasty 
retreat  into  the  colder  (but  somewhat  drier)  weather 
outside.  My  clumsiness  necessitated  a delay  of 
nearly  an  hour  in  starting.  While  we  were  melting 
more  frozen  snow  and  re-making  the  tea,  we  warmed 
up  some  pea  soup  and  Irish  stew.  Tucker  and  I 
managed  to  eat  a little.  Coello  and  Gamarra  had  no 
stomachs  for  anything  but  tea.  We  decided  to  leave 
the  Tucker  tent  at  the  20,000  foot  level,  together 
with  most  of  our  outfit  and  provisions.  From  here 
to  the  top  we  were  to  carry  only  such  things  as  were 
absolutely  necessary.  They  included  the  Mummery 
tent  with  pegs  and  poles,  the  mountain-mercurial 
barometer,  the  two  Watkins  aneroids,  the  hypsom- 
eter,  a pair  of  Zeiss  glasses,  two  3A  kodaks,  six 
films,  a sling  psychrometer,  a prismatic  compass  and 
clinometer,  a Stanley  pocket  level,  an  eighty-foot 
red-strand  mountain  rope,  three  ice  axes,  a seven- 
foot  flagpole,  an  American  flag  and  a Yale  flag.  In 


40 


INCA  LAND 


order  to  avoid  disaster  in  case  of  storm,  we  also 
carried  four  of  Silver’s  self-heating  cans  of  Irish 
stew  and  mock-turtle  soup,  a cake  of  chocolate,  and 
eight  hard-tack,  besides  raisins  and  cubes  of  sugar 
in  our  pockets.  Our  loads  weighed  about  twenty 
pounds  each. 

To  our  great  satisfaction  and  relief,  the  weather 
continued  fine  and  there  was  very  little  wind.  On 
the  preceding  afternoon  the  snow  had  been  so  soft 
one  frequently  went  in  over  one’s  knees,  but  now 
everything  was  frozen  hard.  We  left  camp  at  five 
o’clock.  It  was  still  dark.  The  great  dome  of  Coro- 
puna  loomed  up  on  our  left,  cut  off  from  direct 
attack  by  gigantic  ice  falls.  To  reach  it  we  must 
first  surmount  the  saddle  on  the  main  ridge.  From 
there  an  apparently  unbroken  slope  extended  to  the 
top.  Our  progress  was  distressingly  slow,  even  with 
the  light  loads.  When  we  reached  the  saddle  there 
came  a painful  surprise.  To  the  north  of  us  loomed 
a great  snowy  cone,  the  peak  which  we  had  at  first 
noticed  from  the  Chuquibamba  Calvario.  Now  it 
actually  looked  higher  than  the  dome  we  were  about 
to  climb!  From  the  Sihuas  Desert,  eighty  miles 
away,  the  dome  had  certainly  seemed  to  be  the 
highest  point.  So  we  stuck  to  our  task,  although 
constantly  facing  the  possibility  that  our  painful 
labors  might  be  in  vain  and  that  eventually,  this 
north  peak  would  prove  to  be  higher.  We  began  to 
doubt  whether  we  should  have  strength  enough  for 
both.  Loss  of  sleep,  soroche , and  lack  of  appetite 
were  rapidly  undermining  our  endurance. 

The  last  slope  had  an  inclination  of  thirty  degrees. 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


41 


We  should  have  had  to  cut  steps  with  our  ice  axes 
all  the  way  up  had  it  not  been  for  our  snow-creepers, 
which  worked  splendidly.  As  it  was,  not  more  than  a 
dozen  or  fifteen  steps  actually  had  to  be  cut  even  in 
the  steepest  part.  Tucker  was  first  on  the  rope,  I 
was  second,  Coello  third,  and  Gamarra  brought  up 
the  rear.  We  were  not  a very  gay  party.  The  high 
altitude  was  sapping  all  our  ambition.  I found  that 
an  occasional  lump  of  sugar  acted  as  the  best  rapid 
restorative  to  sagging  spirits.  It  was  astonishing 
how  quickly  the  carbon  in  the  sugar  was  absorbed 
by  the  system  and  came  to  the  relief  of  smoldering 
bodily  fires.  A single  cube  gave  new  strength  and 
vigor  for  several  minutes.  Of  course,  one  could  not 
eat  sugar  without  limit,  but  it  did  help  to  tide  over 
difficult  places. 

We  zigzagged  slowly  up,  hour  after  hour,  alter- 
nately resting  and  climbing,  until  we  were  about  to 
reach  what  seemed  to  be  the  top,  obviously,  alas, 
not  as  high  as  our  enemy  to  the  north.  Just  then 
Tucker  gave  a great  shout.  The  rest  of  us  were  too 
much  out  of  breath  to  ask  him  why  he  was  wasting 
his  strength  shouting.  When  at  last  we  painfully 
came  to  the  edge  of  what  looked  like  the  summit  we 
saw  the  cause  of  his  joy.  There,  immediately  ahead 
of  us,  lay  another  slope  three  hundred  feet  higher 
than  where  we  were  standing.  It  may  seem  strange 
that  in  our  weakened  condition  we  should  have  been 
glad  to  find  that  we  had  three  hundred  feet  more  to 
climb.  Remember,  however,  that  all  the  morning 
we  had  been  gazing  with  dread  at  that  aggravating 
north  peak.  Whenever  we  had  had  a moment  to 


42 


INCA  LAND 


give  to  the  consideration  of  anything  but  the  im- 
mediate difficulties  of  our  climb  our  hearts  had  sunk 
within  us  at  the  thought  that  possibly,  after  all,  we 
might  find  the  north  peak  higher.  The  fact  that 
there  lay  before  us  another  three  hundred  feet, 
which  would  undoubtedly  take  us  above  the  highest 
point  of  that  aggravating  north  peak,  was  so  very 
much  the  less  of  two  possible  evils  that  we  under- 
stood Tucker’s  shout.  Yet  none  of  us  was  lusty 
enough  to  echo  it. 

With  faint  smiles  and  renewed  courage  we  pegged 
along,  resting  on  our  ice  axes,  as  usual,  every  twenty- 
five  steps  until  at  last,  at  half-past  eleven,  after  six 
hours  and  a half  of  climbing  from  the  20,000-foot 
camp,  we  reached  the  culminating  point  of  Coro- 
puna.  As  we  approached  it,  Tucker,  although 
naturally  much  elated  at  having  successfully  engi- 
neered the  first  ascent  of  this  great  mountain, 
stopped  and  with  extraordinary  courtesy  and  self- 
abnegation  smilingly  motioned  me  to  go  ahead  in 
order  that  the  director  of  the  Expedition  might  be 
actually  the  first  person  to  reach  the  culminating 
point.  In  order  to  appreciate  how  great  a sacrifice 
he  was  willing  to  make,  it  should  be  stated  that  his 
willingness  to  come  on  the  Expedition  was  due 
chiefly  to  a fondness  for  mountain  climbing  and  his 
desire  to  add  Coropuna  to  his  sheaf  of  victories. 
Greatly  as  I appreciated  his  kindness  in  making  way 
for  me,  I could  only  acquiesce  in  so  far  as  to  con- 
tinue the  climb  by  his  side.  We  reached  the  top 
together,  and  sank  down  to  rest  and  look  about. 

The  truncated  summit  is  an  oval-shaped  snow 


THE  CAMP  ON  THE  SUMMIT  OF  COROPUNA 
ELEVATION,  21,703  FEET 


ONE  OF  THE  FREQUENT  RESTS  IN  THE  ASCENT 
OF  COROPUNA 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


43 


field,  almost  flat,  having  an  area  of  nearly  half  an 
acre,  about  ioo  feet  north  and  south  and  175  feet 
east  and  west.  If  it  once  were,  as  we  suppose,  a 
volcanic  crater,  the  pit  had  long  since  been  filled  up 
with  snow  and  ice.  There  were  no  rocks  to  be  seen 
on  the  rim  — only  the  hard  crust  of  the  glistening 
white  surface.  The  view  from  the  top  was  desolate 
in  the  extreme.  We  were  in  the  midst  of  a great 
volcanic  desert  dotted  with  isolated  peaks  covered 
with  snow  and  occasional  glaciers.  Not  an  atom  of 
green  was  to  be  seen  anywhere.  Apparently  we 
stood  on  top  of  a dead  world.  Mountain  climbers 
in  the  Andes  have  frequently  spoken  of  seeing  con- 
dors at  great  altitudes.  We  saw  none.  Northwest, 
twenty  miles  away  across  the  Pampa  Colorada,  a 
reddish  desert,  rose  snow-capped  Solimana.  In  the 
other  direction  we  looked  along  the  range  of  Coro- 
puna  itself ; several  of  the  lesser  peaks  being  only  a 
few  hundred  feet  below  our  elevation.  Far  to  the 
southwest  we  imagined  we  could  see  the  faint  blue 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  but  it  was  very  dim. 

My  father  was  an  ardent  mountain  climber, 
glorying  not  only  in  the  difficulties  of  the  ascent, 
but  particularly  in  the  satisfaction  coming  from  the 
magnificent  view  to  be  obtained  at  the  top.  His  zeal 
had  led  him  once,  in  winter,  to  ascend  the  highest 
peak  in  the  Pacific,  Mauna  Kea  on  Hawaii.  He 
taught  me  as  a boy  to  be  fond  of  climbing  the  moun- 
tains of  Oahu  and  Maui  and  to  be  appreciative  of  the 
views  which  could  be  obtained  by  such  expenditure 
of  effort.  Yet  now  I could  not  take  the  least  interest 
or  pleasure  in  the  view  from  the  top  of  Coropuna, 


44 


INCA  LAND 


nor  could  my  companions.  No  sense  of  satisfaction 
in  having  attained  a difficult  objective  cheered  us 
up.  We  all  felt  greatly  depressed  and  said  little, 
although  Gamarra  asked  for  his  bonus  and  regarded 
the  gold  coins  with  grim  complacency. 

After  we  had  rested  awhile  we  began  to  take 
observations.  Unslinging  the  aneroid  which  I had 
been  carrying,  I found  to  my  surprise  and  dismay 
that  the  needle  showed  a height  of  only  21,525  feet 
above  sea  level.  Tucker’s  aneroid  read  more  than  a 
thousand  feet  higher,  22,550  feet,  but  even  this  fell 
short  of  Raimondi’s  estimate  of  22,775  feet,  and 
considerably  below  Bandelier’s  “23,000  feet.”  This 
was  a keen  disappointment,  for  we  had  hoped  that 
the  aneroids  would  at  least  show  a margin  over  the 
altitude  of  Mt.  Aconcagua,  22,763  feet.  This  dis- 
covery served  to  dampen  our  spirits  still  further. 
We  took  what  comfort  we  could  from  the  fact  that 
the  aneroids,  which  had  checked  each  other  per- 
fectly up  to  17,000  feet,  were  now  so  obviously  un- 
trustworthy. We  could  only  hope  that  both  might 
prove  to  be  inaccurate,  as  actually  happened,  and 
that  both  might  now  be  reading  too  low.  Anyhow, 
the  north  peak  did  look  lower  than  we  were.  To 
satisfy  any  doubts  on  this  subject,  Tucker  took  the 
wooden  box  in  which  we  had  brought  the  hypsom- 
eter,  laid  it  on  the  snow,  leveled  it  up  carefully 
with  the  Stanley  pocket  level,  and  took  a squint 
over  it  toward  the  north  peak.  He  smiled  and  said 
nothing.  So  each  of  us  in  turn  lay  down  in  the  snow 
and  took  a squint.  It  was  all  right.  We  were  at 
least  250  feet  higher  than  that  aggravating  peak. 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


45 


We  were  also  450  feet  higher  than  the  east  peak  of 
Coropuna,  and  a thousand  feet  higher  than  any 
other  mountain  in  sight.  At  any  rate,  we  should  not 
have  to  call  upon  our  fast-ebbing  strength  for  any 
more  hard  climbs  in  the  immediate  future.  After 
arriving  at  this  satisfactory  conclusion  we  pitched 
the  little  Mummery  tent,  set  up  the  tripod  for  the 
mercurial  barometer,  arranged  the  boiling  point 
thermometer  with  its  apparatus,  and  with  the  aid 
of  kodaks  and  notebooks  proceeded  to  take  as 
many  observations  as  possible  in  the  next  four 
hours.  At  two  o’clock  we  read  the  mercurial,  know- 
ing that  at  the  same  hour  readings  were  being  made 
by  Watkins  at  the  Base  Camp  and  by  the  Harvard 
astronomers  in  the  Observatory  at  Arequipa.  The 
barometer  was  suspended  from  a tripod  set  up  in  the 
shade  of  the  tent.  The  mercury,  which  at  sea  level 
often  stands  at  31  inches,  now  stood  at  13.838 
inches.  The  temperature  of  the  thermometer  on  the 
barometer  was  exactly  +320  F.  At  the  same  time, 
inside  the  tent  we  got  the  water  to  boiling  and  took 
a reading  with  the  hypsometer.  Water  boils  at  sea 
level  at  a temperature  of  2120  F.  Here  it  boiled  at 
1 740  F.  After  taking  the  reading  we  greedily  drank 
the  water  which  had  been  heated  for  the  hypsom- 
eter. We  were  thirsty  enough  to  have  drunk  five 
times  as  much.  We  were  not  hungry,  and  made  no 
use  of  our  provisions  except  a few  raisins,  some 
sugar,  and  chocolate. 

After  completing  our  observations,  we  fastened 
the  little  tent  as  securely  as  possible,  banking  the 
snow  around  it,  and  left  it  on  top,  first  having  placed 


INCA  LAND 


46 

in  it  one  of  the  Appalachian  Mountain  Club’s  brass 
record  cylinders,  in  which  we  had  sealed  the  Yale 
flag,  a contemporary  map  of  Peru,  and  two  brief 
statements  regarding  the  ascent.  The  American  flag 
was  left  flying  from  a nine-foot  pole,  which  we 
planted  at  the  northwest  rim  of  the  dome,  where 
it  could  be  seen  from  the  road  to  Cotahuasi.  Here 
Mr.  Casimir  Watkins  saw  it  a week  later  and  Dr. 
Isaiah  Bowman  two  weeks  later.  When  Chief  To- 
pographer Hendriksen  arrived  three  weeks  later  to 
make  his  survey,  it  had  disappeared.  Probably  a 
severe  storm  had  blown  it  over  and  buried  it  in  the 
snow. 

We  left  the  summit  at  three  o’clock  and  arrived 
at  the  20,000  foot  camp  two  hours  and  fifteen  min- 
utes later.  The  first  part  of  the  way  down  to  the 
saddle  we  attempted  a glissade.  Then  the  slope  grew 
steeper  and  we  got  up  too  much  speed  for  comfort, 
so  we  finally  had  to  be  content  with  a slower  method 
of  locomotion.  That  night  there  was  very  little  wind. 
Mountain  climbers  have  more  to  fear  from  exces- 
sively high  winds  than  almost  any  other  cause.  We 
were  very  lucky.  Nothing  occurred  to  interfere  with 
the  best  progress  we  were  physically  capable  of 
making.  It  turned  out  that  we  did  not  need  to  have 
brought  so  many  supplies  with  us.  In  fact,  it  is  an 
open  question  whether  our  acute  mountain-sickness 
would  have  permitted  us  to  outlast  a long  storm, 
or  left  us  enough  appetite  to  use  the  provisions.  Al- 
though one  does  get  accustomed  to  high  altitudes, 
we  felt  very  doubtful.  No  one  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere had  ever  made  night  camps  at  20,000  feet 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


47 


or  pitched  a tent  as  high  as  the  summit  of  Coropuna. 
The  severity  of  mountain-sickness  differs  greatly  in 
different  localities,  apparently  not  depending  en- 
tirely on  the  altitude.  I do  not  know  how  long  we 
could  have  stood  it.  It  is  difficult  to  believe  that 
with  strength  enough  to  achieve  the  climb  we  should 
have  felt  as  weak  and  ill  as  we  did. 

That  night,  although  we  were  very  weary,  none 
of  us  slept  much.  The  violent  whooping  cough  con- 
tinued and  all  of  us  were  nauseated  again  in  the 
morning.  We  felt  so  badly  and  were  able  to  take  so 
little  nourishment  that  it  was  determined  to  get  to 
a lower  altitude  as  fast  as  possible.  To  lighten  our 
loads  we  left  behind  some  of  our  supplies.  We  broke 
camp  at  9 : 20.  Eighteen  minutes  later,  without 
having  to  rest,  the  cache  was  reached  and  the  few 
remnants  were  picked  up.  Although  many  things 
had  been  abandoned,  our  loads  seemed  heavier  than 
ever.  We  had  some  difficulty  in  negotiating  the 
crevasses,  but  Gamarra  was  the  only  one  actually 
to  fall  in,  and  he  was  easily  pulled  out  again.  About 
noon  we  heard  a faint  halloo,  and  finally  made  out 
two  animated  specks  far  down  the  mountain  side. 
The  effect  of  again  seeing  somebody  from  the  out- 
side world  was  rather  curious.  I had  a choking 
sensation.  Tucker,  who  led  the  way,  told  me  long 
afterward  that  he  could  not  keep  the  tears  from 
running  down  his  cheeks,  although  we  did  not  see  it 
at  the  time.  The  ‘‘specks ” turned  out  to  be  Watkins 
and  an  Indian  boy,  who  came  up  as  high  as  was  safe 
without  ropes  or  crampons , and  relieved  us  of  some 
weight.  The  Base  Camp  was  reached  at  half-past 


INCA  LAND 


48 

twelve.  One  of  the  first  things  Tucker  did  on  return- 
ing was  to  weigh  all  the  packs.  To  my  surprise  and 
disgust  I learned  that  on  the  way  down  Tucker, 
afraid  that  some  of  us  would  collapse,  had  carried 
sixty-one  pounds,  and  Gamarra  sixty-four,  while 
he  had  given  me  only  thirty-one  pounds,  and  the 
same  to  Coello.  This,  of  course,  does  not  include  the 
weight  of  our  ice-creepers,  axes,  or  rope. 

The  next  day  all  of  us  felt  very  tired  and  drowsy. 
In  fact,  I was  almost  overcome  with  inertia.  It  was 
a fearful  task  even  to  lift  one’s  hand.  The  sun  had 
burned  our  faces  terribly.  Our  lips  were  painfully 
swollen.  We  coughed  and  whooped.  It  seemed  best 
to  make  every  effort  to  get  back  to  a still  lower 
altitude  for  the  mules.  So  we  broke  camp,  got  the 
loads  ready  without  waiting,  put  our  sleeping-bags 
and  blankets  on  our  backs,  and  went  rapidly  down 
to  the  Indians’  huts.  Immediately  our  malaise  left 
us.  We  felt  physically  stronger.  We  took  deep 
breaths  as  though  we  had  gotten  back  to  sea  level. 
There  was  no  sensation  of  oppression  on  the  chest. 
Yet  we  were  still  actually  higher  than  the  top  of 
Pike’s  Peak.  We  could  move  rapidly  about  without 
getting  out  of  breath;  the  aggravating  “ whooping 
cough”  left  us;  and  our  appetites  returned.  To  be 
sure,  we  still  suffered  from  the  effects  of  snow  and 
sun.  On  the  ascent  I had  been  very  thirsty  and 
foolishly  had  allowed  myself  to  eat  a considerable 
amount  of  snow.  As  a result  my  tongue  was  now 
so  extremely  sensitive  that  pieces  of  soda  biscuit 
tasted  like  broken  glass.  Corporal  Gamarra,  who 
had  been  unwilling  to  keep  his  snow-glasses  always 


CLIMBING  COROPUNA 


49 


In  place  and  thought  to  relieve  his  eyes  by  fre- 
quently dispensing  with  them,  now  suffered  from 
partial  snow-blindness.  The  rest  of  us  were  spared 
any  inflammation  of  the  eyes.  There  followed  two 
days  of  resting  and  waiting.  Then  the  smiling 
arrieros , surprised  and  delighted  at  seeing  us  alive 
again  after  our  adventure  with  Coropuna,  arrived 
with  our  mules.  The  Tejadas  gave  us  hearty  em- 
braces and  promptly  went  off  up  to  the  snow  line 
to  get  the  loads.  The  next  day  we  returned  to  Chu- 
quibamba. 

In  November  Chief  Topographer  Hendriksen 
completed  his  survey  and  found  the  latitude  of 
Coropuna  to  be  150  31'  South,  and  the  longitude  to 
be  720  42'  40"  West  of  Greenwich.  He  computed  its 
altitude  to  be  21,703  feet  above  sea  level.  The  result 
of  comparing  the  readings  of  our  mercurial  barom- 
eter, taken  at  the  summit,  with  the  simultaneous 
readings  taken  at  Arequipa  gave  practically  the 
same  figures.  There  was  less  than  sixty  feet  differ- 
ence between  the  two.  Although  Coropuna  proves 
to  be  thirteen  hundred  feet  lower  than  Bandelier’s 
estimate,  and  a thousand  feet  lower  than  the  high- 
est mountain  in  South  America,  still  it  is  a thousand 
feet  higher  than  the  highest  mountain  in  North 
America.  While  we  were  glad  we  were  the  first  to 
reach  the  top,  we  all  agreed  we  would  never  do  it 
again ! 


CHAPTER  III 

TO  PARINACOCHAS 


A FTER  a few  days  in  the  delightful  climate  of 
-CjL  Chuquibamba  we  set  out  for  Parinacochas,  the 
“Flamingo  Lake”  of  the  Incas.  The  late  Sir 
Clements  Markham,  literary  and  historical  suc- 
cessor of  the  author  of  “The  Conquest  of  Peru,” 
had  called  attention  to  this  unexplored  lake  in  one 
of  the  publications  of  the  Royal  Geographical  So- 
ciety, and  had  named  a bathymetric  survey  of 
Parinacochas  as  one  of  the  principal  desiderata  for 
future  exploration  in  Peru.  So  far  as  one  could 
judge  from  the  published  maps  Parinacochas,  al- 
though much  smaller  than  Titicaca,  was  the  largest 
body  of  water  entirely  in  Peru.  A thorough  search 
of  geographical  literature  failed  to  reveal  anything 
regarding  its  depth.  The  only  thing  that  seemed  to 
be  known  about  it  was  that  it  had  no  outlet.  Gen- 
eral William  Miller,  once  British  consul  general  in 
Honolulu,  who  had  as  a young  man  assisted  General 
San  Martin  in  the  Wars  for  the  Independence  of 
Chile  and  Peru,  published  his  memoirs  in  London 
in  1828.  During  the  campaigns  against  the  Spanish 
forces  in  Peru  he  had  had  occasion  to  see  many  out- 
of-the-way  places  in  the  interior.  On  one  of  his 
rough  sketch  maps  he  indicates  the  location  of  Lake 
Parinacochas  and  notes  the  fact  that  the  water  is 
“brackish.”  This  statement  of  General  Miller’s  and 


TO  PARINACOCHAS 


5i 


the  suggestion  of  Sir  Clements  Markham  that  a 
bathymetric  survey  of  the  lake  would  be  an  impor- 
tant contribution  to  geographical  knowledge  was  all 
that  we  were  able  to  learn.  Our  arrieros , the  Teja- 
das, had  never  been  to  Parinacochas,  but  knew  in  a 
general  way  its  location  and  were  not  afraid  to  try  to 
get  there.  Some  of  their  friends  had  been  there  and 
come  back  alive ! 

First,  however,  it  was  necessary  for  us  to  go 
to  Cotahuasi,  the  capital  of  the  Province  of  Anta- 
bamba,  and  meet  Dr.  Bowman  and  Mr.  Hendriksen, 
who  had  slowly  been  working  their  way  across  the 
Andes  from  the  Urubamba  Valley,  and  who  would 
need  a new  supply  of  food-boxes  if  they  were  to 
complete  the  geographical  reconnaissance  of  the  73d 
meridian.  Our  route  led  us  out  of  the  Chuquibamba 
Valley  by  a long,  hard  climb  up  the  steep  cliffs  at  its 
head  and  then  over  the  gently  sloping,  semi-arid 
desert  in  a northerly  direction,  around  the  west 
flanks  of  Coropuna.  When  we  stopped  to  make 
camp  that  night  on  the  Pampa  of  Chumpillo,  our 
arrieros  used  dried  moss  and  dung  for  fuel  for  the 
camp  fire.  There  was  some  bunch-grass,  and  there 
were  llamas  pasturing  on  the  plains.  Near  our  tent 
were  some  Inca  ruins,  probably  the  dwelling  of  a 
shepherd  chief,  or  possibly  the  remains  of  a tem- 
ple described  by  Cieza  de  Leon  (1519-1560),  whose 
remarkable  accounts  of  what  he  saw  and  learned  in 
Peru  during  the  time  of  the  Pizarros  are  very  highly 
regarded.  He  says  that  among  the  five  most  im- 
portant temples  in  the  Land  of  the  Incas  was  one 
4 ‘much  venerated  and  frequented  by  them,  named 


52 


INCA  LAND 


Coropuna.”  11  It  is  on  a very  lofty  mountain  which 
is  covered  with  snow  both  in  summer  and  winter. 
The  kings  of  Peru  visited  this  temple  making  pres- 
ents and  offerings.  ...  It  is  held  for  certain  [by 
treasure  hunters!]  that  among  the  gifts  offered  to 
this  temple  there  were  many  loads  of  silver,  gold, 
and  precious  stones  buried  in  places  which  are  now 
unknown.  The  Indians  concealed  another  great  sum 
which  was  for  the  service  of  the  idol,  and  of  the 
priests  and  virgins  who  attended  upon  it.  But  as 
there  are  great  masses  of  snow,  people  do  not  ascend 
to  the  summit,  nor  is  it  known  where  these  are 
hidden.  This  temple  possessed  many  flocks,  farms, 
and  service  of  Indians.”  No  one  lives  here  now,  but 
there  are  many  flocks  and  llamas,  and  not  far  away 
we  saw  ancient  storehouses  and  burial  places.  That 
night  we  suffered  from  intense  cold  and  were  kept 
awake  by  the  bitter  wind  which  swept  down  from 
the  snow  fields  of  Coropuna  and  shook  the  walls  of 
our  tent  violently. 

The  next  day  we  crossed  two  small  oases,  little 
gulches  watered  from  the  melting  snow  of  Coropuna. 
Here  there  was  an  abundance  of  peat  and  some  small 
gnarled  trees  from  which  Chuquibamba  derives 
part  of  its  fuel  supply.  We  climbed  slowly  around 
the  lower  spurs  of  Coropuna  into  a bleak  desert 
wilderness  of  lava  blocks  and  scoriaceous  sand,  the 
Red  Desert,  or  Pampa  Colorada.  It  is  for  the  most 
part  between  15,000  and  16,000  feet  above  sea  level, 
and  is  bounded  on  the  northwest  by  the  canyon  of 
the  Rio  Arma,  2000  feet  deep,  where  we  made  our 
camp  and  passed  a more  agreeable  night.  The  fol- 


TO  PARINACOCHAS 


53 


lowing  morning  we  climbed  out  again  on  the  farther 
side  of  the  canyon  and  skirted  the  eastern  slopes 
of  Mt.  Solimana.  Soon  the  trail  turned  abruptly  to 
the  left,  away  from  our  old  friend  Coropuna. 

We  wondered  how  long  ago  our  mountain  was  an 
active  volcano.  To-day,  less  than  two  hundred  miles 
south  of  here  are  live  peaks,  like  El  Misti  and  Ubi- 
nas,  which  still  smolder  occasionally  and  have  been 
known  in  the  memory  of  man  to  give  forth  great 
showers  of  cinders  covering  a wide  area.  Possibly 
not  so  very  long  ago  the  great  truncated  peak  of 
Coropuna  was  formed  by  a last  flickering  of  the 
ancient  fires.  Dr.  Bowman  says  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  vast  accumulation  of  lavas  and  volcanic 
cinders  in  this  vicinity  goes  far  back  to  a period  pre- 
ceding the  last  glacial  epoch.  The  enormous  amount 
of  erosion  that  has  taken  place  in  the  adjacent 
canyons  and  the  great  numbers  of  strata,  composed 
of  lava  flows,  laid  bare  by  the  mighty  streams  of  the 
glacial  period  all  point  to  this  conclusion. 

My  saddle  mule  was  one  of  those  cantankerous 
beasts  that  are  gentle  enough  as  long  as  they  are 
allowed  to  have  their  own  way.  In  her  case  this 
meant  that  she  was  happy  only  when  going  along 
close  to  her  friends  in  the  caravan.  If  reined  in, 
while  I took  some  notes,  she  became  very  restive, 
finally  whirling  around,  plunging  and  kicking. 
Contrariwise,  no  amount  of  spurring  or  lashing  with 
a stout  quirt  availed  to  make  her  go  ahead  of  her 
comrades.  This  morning  I was  particularly  anxious 
to  get  a picture  of  our  pack  train  jogging  steadily 
along  over  the  desert,  directly  away  from  Coropuna. 


54 


INCA  LAND 


Since  my  mule  would  not  gallop  ahead,  I had  to  dis- 
mount, run  a couple  of  hundred  yards  ahead  of  the 
rapidly  advancing  animals  and  take  the  picture 
before  they  reached  me.  We  were  now  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  16,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Yet  to  my  sur- 
prise and  delight  I found  that  it  was  relatively  as 
easy  to  run  here  as  anywhere,  so  accustomed  had 
my  lungs  and  heart  become  to  very  rarefied  air. 
Had  I attempted  such  a strenuous  feat  at  a similar 
altitude  before  climbing  Coropuna  it  would  have 
been  physically  impossible.  Any  one  who  has  tried 
to  run  two  hundred  yards  at  three  miles  above  sea 
level  will  understand. 

We  were  still  in  a very  arid  region ; mostly  coarse 
black  sand  and  pebbles,  with  typical  desert  shrubs 
and  occasional  bunches  of  tough  grass.  The  slopes 
of  Mt.  Solimana  on  our  left  were  fairly  well  covered 
with  sparse  vegetation.  Among  the  bushes  we  saw  a 
number  of  vicunas,  the  smallest  wild  camels  of  the 
New  World.  We  tried  in  vain  to  get  near  enough 
for  a photograph.  They  were  extremely  timid  and 
scampered  away  before  we  were  within  three  hun- 
dred yards. 

Seven  or  eight  miles  more  of  very  gradual  down- 
ward slope  brought  us  suddenly  and  unexpectedly 
to  the  brink  of  a magnificent  canyon,  the  densely 
populated  valley  of  Cotahuasi.  The  walls  of  the 
canyon  were  covered  with  innumerable  terraces  — 
thousands  of  them.  It  seemed  at  first  glance  as 
though  every  available  spot  in  the  canyon  had  been 
either  terraced  or  allotted  to  some  compact  little 
village.  One  could  count  more  than  a score  of  towns, 


TO  PARINACOCHAS 


55 


including  Cotahuasi  itself,  its  long  main  street  out- 
lined by  whitewashed  houses.  As  we  zigzagged  down 
into  the  canyon  our  road  led  us  past  hundreds  of 
the  artificial  terraces  and  through  little  villages  of 
thatched  huts  huddled  together  on  spurs  rescued 
from  the  all-embracing  agriculture.  After  spending 
several  weeks  in  a desert  region,  where  only  the 
narrow  valley  bottoms  showed  any  signs  of  cultiva- 
tion, it  seemed  marvelous  to  observe  the  extent  to 
which  terracing  had  been  carried  on  the  side  of  the 
Cotahuasi  Valley.  Although  we  were  now  in  the 
zone  of  light  annual  rains,  it  was  evident  from  the 
extraordinary  irrigation  system  that  agriculture 
here  depends  very  largely  on  ability  to  bring  water 
down  from  the  great  mountains  in  the  interior. 
Most  of  the  terraces  and  irrigation  canals  were  built 
centuries  ago,  long  before  the  discovery  of  America. 

No  part  of  the  ancient  civilization  of  Peru  has 
been  more  admired  than  the  development  of  agri- 
culture. Mr.  Cook  says  that  there  is  no  part  of  the 
world  in  which  more  pains  have  been  taken  to  raise 
crops  where  nature  made  it  hard  for  them  to  be 
planted.  In  other  countries,  to  be  sure,  we  find 
reclamation  projects,  where  irrigation  canals  serve 
to  bring  water  long  distances  to  be  used  on  arid  but 
fruitful  soil.  We  also  find  great  fertilizer  factories 
turning  out,  according  to  proper  chemical  formula, 
the  needed  constituents  to  furnish  impoverished 
soils  with  the  necessary  materials  for  plant  growth. 
We  find  man  overcoming  many  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  transportation,  in  order  to  reach  great  regions 
where  nature  has  provided  fertile  fields  and  made 


INCA  LAND 


56 

it  easy  to  raise  life-giving  crops.  Nowhere  outside  of 
Peru,  either  in  historic  or  prehistoric  times,  does  one 
find  farmers  spending  incredible  amounts  of  labor 
in  actually  creating  arable  fields,  besides  bringing 
the  water  to  irrigate  them  and  the  guano  to  fertilize 
them;  yet  that  is  what  was  done  by  the  ancient 
highlanders  of  Peru.  As  they  spread  over  a country 
in  which  the  arable  flat  land  was  usually  at  so  great 
an  elevation  as  to  be  suitable  for  only  the  hardiest 
of  root  crops,  like  the  white  potato  and  the  oca , they 
were  driven  to  use  narrow  valley  bottoms  and  steep, 
though  fertile,  slopes  in  order  to  raise  the  precious 
maize  and  many  of  the  other  temperate  and  tropical 
plants  which  they  domesticated  for  food  and  medi- 
cinal purposes.  They  were  constantly  confronted 
by  an  extraordinary  scarcity  of  soil.  In  the  valley 
bottoms  torrential  rivers,  meandering  from  side  to 
side,  were  engaged  in  an  endless  endeavor  to  tear 
away  the  arable  land  and  bear  it  off  to  the  sea.  The 
slopes  of  the  valleys  were  frequently  so  very  steep 
as  to  discourage  the  most  ardent  modern  agricul- 
turalist. The  farmer  might  wake  up  any  morning  to 
find  that  a heavy  rain  during  the  night  had  washed 
away  a large  part  of  his  carefully  planted  fields. 
Consequently  there  was  developed,  through  the 
centuries,  a series  of  stone-faced  andenes , terraces 
or  platforms. 

Examination  of  the  ancient  andenes  discloses  the 
fact  that  they  were  not  made  by  simply  hoeing  in 
the  earth  from  the  hillside  back  of  a carefully  con- 
structed stone  wall.  The  space  back  of  the  walls  was 
first  filled  in  with  coarse  rocks,  clay,  and  rubble; 


TO  PARINACOCHAS 


57 


then  followed  smaller  rocks,  pebbles,  and  gravel, 
which  would  serve  to  drain  the  subsoil.  Finally,  on 
top  of  all  this,  and  to  a depth  of  eighteen  inches  or 
so,  was  laid  the  finest  soil  they  could  procure.  The 
result  was  the  best  possible  field  for  intensive  culti- 
vation. It  seems  absolutely  unbelievable  that  such 
an  immense  amount  of  pains  should  have  been  taken 
for  such  relatively  small  results.  The  need  must 
have  been  very  great.  In  many  cases  the  terraces 
are  only  a few  feet  wide,  although  hundreds  of  yards 
in  length.  Usually  they  follow  the  natural  contours 
of  the  valley.  Sometimes  they  are  two  hundred 
yards  wide  and  a quarter  of  a mile  long.  To-day 
corn,  barley,  and  alfalfa  are  grown  on  the  terraces. 

Cotahuasi  itself  lies  in  the  bottom  of  the  valley, 
a pleasant  place  where  one  can  purchase  the  most 
fragrant  and  highly  prized  of  all  Peruvian  wines. 
The  climate  is  agreeable,  and  has  attracted  many 
landlords,  whose  estates  lie  chiefly  on  the  bleak 
plateaus  of  the  surrounding  highlands,  where  shep- 
herds tend  flocks  of  llamas,  sheep,  and  alpacas. 

We  were  cordially  welcomed  by  Senor  Viscarra, 
the  sub-prefect,  and  invited  to  stay  at  his  house. 
He  was  a stranger  to  the  locality,  and,  as  the  visible 
representative  of  a powerful  and  far-away  central 
government,  was  none  too  popular  with  some  of  the 
people  of  his  province.  Very  few  residents  of  a pro- 
vincial capital  like  Cotahuasi  have  ever  been  to 
Lima;  — probably  not  a single  member  of  the  Lima 
government  had  ever  been  to  Cotahuasi.  Conse- 
quently one  could  not  expect  to  find  much  sympathy 
between  the  two.  The  difficulties  of  traveling  in 


INCA  LAND 


58 

Peru  are  so  great  as  to  discourage  pleasure  trips, 
With  our  letters  of  introduction  and  the  telegrams 
that  had  preceded  us  from  the  prefect  at  Arequipa, 
we  were  known  to  be  friends  of  the  government  and 
so  were  doubly  welcome  to  the  sub-prefect.  By 
nature  a kind  and  generous  man,  of  more  than 
usual  education  and  intelligence,  Senor  Viscarra 
showed  himself  most  courteous  and  hospitable  to  us 
in  every  particular.  In  our  honor  he  called  together 
his  friends.  They  brought  pictures  of  Theodore 
Roosevelt  and  Elihu  Root,  and  made  a large  Ameri- 
can flag;  a courtesy  we  deeply  appreciated,  even  if 
the  flag  did  have  only  thirty-six  stars.  Finally,  they 
gave  us  a splendid  banquet  as  a tribute  of  friendship 
for  America. 

One  day  the  sub-prefect  offered  to  have  his 
personal  barber  attend  us.  It  was  some  time  since 
Mr.  Tucker  and  I had  seen  a barber-shop.  The 
chances  were  that  we  should  find  none  at  Parina- 
cochas.  Consequently  we  accepted  with  pleasure. 
When  the  barber  arrived,  closely  guarded  by  a 
gendarme  armed  with  a loaded  rifle,  we  learned  that 
he  was  a convict  from  the  local  jail!  I did  not  like 
to  ask  the  nature  of  his  crime,  but  he  looked  like  a 
murderer.  When  he  unwrapped  an  ancient  pair  of 
clippers  from  an  unspeakably  soiled  and  oily  rag,  I 
wished  I was  in  a position  to  decline  to  place  myself 
under  his  ministrations.  The  sub-prefect,  however, 
had  been  so  kind  and  was  so  apologetic  as  to  the 
inconveniences  of  the  “barber-shop”  that  there  was 
nothing  for  it  but  to  go  bravely  forward.  Although 
it  was  unpleasant  to  have  one’s  hair  trimmed  by  an 


TO  PARINACOCHAS 


59 


uncertain  pair  of  rusty  clippers,  I could  not  help  ex- 
periencing a feeling  of  relief  that  the  convict  did  not 
have  a pair  of  shears.  He  was  working  too  near  my 
jugular  vein.  Finally  the  period  of  torture  came  to 
an  end,  and  the  prisoner  accepted  his  fees  with  a 
profound  salutation.  We  breathed  sighs  of  relief, 
not  unmixed  with  sympathy,  as  we  saw  him  marched 
safely  away  by  the  gendarme . 

We  had  arrived  in  Cotahuasi  almost  simulta- 
neously with  Dr.  Bowman  and  Topographer  Hen- 
driksen.  They  had  encountered  extraordinary  diffi- 
culties in  carrying  out  the  reconnaissance  of  the 
73d  meridian,  but  were  now  past  the  worst  of  it. 
Their  supplies  were  exhausted,  so  those  which  we  had 
brought  from  Arequipa  were  doubly  welcome.  Mr. 
Watkins  was  assigned  to  assist  Mr.  Hendriksen  and 
a few  days  later  Dr.  Bowman  started  south  to  study 
the  geology  and  geography  of  the  desert.  He  took 
with  him  as  escort  Corporal  Gamarra,  who  was 
only  too  glad  to  escape  from  the  machinations  of 
his  enemies.  It  will  be  remembered  that  it  was 
Gamarra  who  had  successfully  defended  the  Cota- 
huasi barracks  and  jail  at  the  time  of  a revolution- 
ary riot  which  occurred  some  months  previous  to 
our  visit.  The  sub-prefect  accompanied  Dr.  Bow- 
man out  of  town.  For  Gamarra’s  sake  they  left  the 
house  at  three  o’clock  in  the  morning  and  our  gener- 
ous host  agreed  to  ride  with  them  until  daybreak. 
In  his  important  monograph,  “The  Andes  of  South- 
ern Peru,”  Dr.  Bowman  writes:  “At  four  o’clock  our 
whispered  arrangements  were  made.  We  opened 
the  gates  noiselessly  and  our  small  cavalcade  hur- 


6o 


INCA  LAND 


ried  through  the  pitch-black  streets  of  the  town. 
The  soldier  rode  ahead,  his  rifle  across  his  saddle, 
and  directly  behind  him  rode  the  sub-prefect  and 
myself.  The  pack  mules  were  in  the  rear.  We  had 
almost  reached  the  end  of  the  street  when  a door 
opened  suddenly  and  a shower  of  sparks  flew  out 
ahead  of  us.  Instantly  the  soldier  struck  spurs  into 
his  mule  and  turned  into  a side  street.  The  sub- 
prefect drew  his  horse  back  savagely,  and  when  the 
next  shower  of  sparks  flew  out  pushed  me  against 
the  wall  and  whispered,  ‘For  God’s  sake,  who  is  it?' 
Then  suddenly  he  shouted.  ‘Stop  blowing!  Stop 
blowing!’” 

The  cause  of  all  the  disturbance  was  a shabby, 
hard-working  tailor  who  had  gotten  up  at  this 
unearthly  hour  to  start  his  day’s  work  by  pressing 
clothes  for  some  insistent  customer.  He  had  in  his 
hand  an  ancient  smoothing-iron  filled  with  live 
coals,  on  which  he  had  been  vigorously  blowing. 
Hence  the  sparks!  That  a penitent  tailor  and  his 
ancient  goose  should  have  been  able  to  cause  such 
terrific  excitement  at  that  hour  in  the  morning 
would  have  interested  our  own  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes,  who  was  fond  of  referring  to  this  pictur- 
esque apparatus  and  who  might  have  written  an 
appropriate  essay  on  The  Goose  that  Startled  the 
Soldier  of  Cotahuasi;  with  Particular  Reference  to 
His  Being  a Possible  Namesake  of  the  Geese  that 
Aroused  the  Soldiers  of  Ancient  Rome. 

The  most  unusual  industry  of  Cotahuasi  is  the 
weaving  of  rugs  and  carpets  on  vertical  hand  looms. 
The  local  carpet  weavers  make  the  warp  and  woof 


THE  SUB-PREFECT  OF  COTAHUAS1,  HIS  MILITARY  AIDE,  AND  MESSRS.  TUCKER,  HENDRIKSEN, 
BOWMAN,  AND  BINGHAM  INSPECTING  THE  LOCAL  RUG-WEAVING  INDUSTRY 


TO  PARINACOCHAS 


61 


of  woolen  yarn  in  which  loops  of  alpaca  wool,  black, 
gray,  or  white,  are  inserted  to  form  the  desired  pat- 
tern. The  loops  are  cut  so  as  to  form  a deep  pile. 
The  result  is  a delightfully  thick,  warm,  gray  rug. 
Ordinarily  the  native  Peruvian  rug  has  no  pile. 
Probably  the  industry  was  brought  from  Europe 
by  some  Spaniard  centuries  ago.  It  seems  to  be  re- 
stricted to  this  remote  region.  The  rug  makers  are  a 
small  group  of  Indians  who  live  outside  the  town  but 
who  carry  their  hand  looms  from  house  to  house,  as 
required.  It  is  the  custom  for  the  person  who  desires 
a rug  to  buy  the  wool,  supply  the  pattern,  furnish 
the  weaver  with  board,  lodging,  coca , tobacco  and 
wine,  and  watch  the  rug  grow  from  day  to  day  under 
the  shelter  of  his  own  roof.  The  rug  weavers  are 
very  clever  in  copying  new  patterns.  Through  the 
courtesy  of  Senor  Viscarra  we  eventually  received 
several  small  rugs,  woven  especially  for  us  from 
monogram  designs  drawn  by  Mr.  Hendriksen. 

Early  one  morning  in  November  we  said  good-bye 
to  our  friendly  host,  and,  directed  by  a picturesque 
old  guide  who  said  he  knew  the  road  to  Parinaco- 
chas,  we  left  Cotahuasi.  The  highway  crossed  the 
neighboring  stream  on  a treacherous-looking  bridge, 
the  central  pier  of  which  was  built  of  the  crudest 
kind  of  masonry  piled  on  top  of  a gigantic  boulder 
in  midstream.  The  main  arch  of  the  bridge  con- 
sisted of  two  long  logs  across  which  had  been  thrown 
a quantity  of  brush  held  down  by  earth  and  stones. 
There  was  no  rail  on  either  side,  but  our  mules  had 
crossed  bridges  of  this  type  before  and  made  little 
trouble.  On  the  northern  side  of  the  valley  we  rode 


62 


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through  a compact  little  town  called  Mungi  and 
began  to  climb  out  of  the  canyon,  passing  hundreds 
of  very  fine  artificial  terraces,  at  present  used  for 
crops  of  maize  and  barley.  In  one  place  our  road  led 
us  by  a little  waterfall,  an  altogether  surprising  and 
unexpected  phenomenon  in  this  arid  region.  Inves- 
tigation, however,  proved  that  it  was  artificial,  as 
well  as  the  fields.  Its  presence  may  be  due  to  a tem- 
porary connection  between  the  upper  and  lower 
levels  of  ancient  irrigation  canals. 

Hour  after  hour  our  pack  train  painfully  climbed 
the  narrow,  rocky  zigzag  trail.  The  climate  is  fav- 
orable for  agriculture.  Wherever  the  sides  of  the 
canyon  were  not  absolutely  precipitous,  stone-faced 
terraces  and  irrigation  had  transformed  them  long 
ago  into  arable  fields.  Four  thousand  feet  above  the 
valley  floor  we  came  to  a very  fine  series  of  beautiful 
terraces.  On  a shelf  near  the  top  of  the  canyon  we 
pitched  our  tent  near  some  rough  stone  corrals  used 
by  shepherds  whose  flocks  grazed  on  the  lofty 
plateau  beyond,  and  near  a tiny  brook,  which  was 
partly  frozen  over  the  next  morning.  Our  camp  was 
at  an  elevation  of  14,500  feet  above  the  sea.  Near 
by  were  turreted  rocks,  curious  results  of  wind-and- 
sand  erosion. 

The  next  day  we  entered  a region  of  mountain 
pastures.  We  passed  occasional  swamps  and  little 
pools  of  snow  water.  From  one  of  these  we  turned 
and  looked  back  across  the  great  Cotahuasi  Canyon, 
to  the  glaciers  of  Solimana  and  snow-clad  Coropuna, 
now  growing  fainter  and  fainter  as  we  went  toward 
Parinacochas.  At  an  altitude  of  16,500  feet  we 


TO  PARINACOCHAS  63 

struck  across  a great  barren  plateau  covered  with 
rocks  and  sand  — hardly  a living  thing  in  sight. 
In  the  midst  of  it  we  came  to  a beautiful  lake, 
but  it  was  not  Parinacochas.  On  the  plateau  it 
was  intensely  cold.  Occasionally  I dismounted  and 
jogged  along  beside  my  mule  in  order  to  keep  warm. 
Again  I noticed  that  as  the  result  of  my  experiences 
on  Coropuna  I suffered  no  discomfort,  nor  any 
symptoms  of  mountain-sickness,  even  after  trotting 
steadily  for  four  or  five  hundred  yards.  In  the  after- 
noon we  began  to  descend  from  the  plateau  toward 
Lampa  and  found  ourselves  in  the  pasture  lands  of 
i^jochiucha,  where  ichu  grass  and  other  little  foliage 
plants,  watered  by  rain  and  snow,  furnish  forage 
for  large  flocks  of  sheep,  llamas,  and  alpacas.  Their 
owners  live  in  the  cultivated  valleys,  but  the  Indian 
herdsmen  must  face  the  storms  and  piercing  winds 
of  the  high  pastures. 

Alpacas  are  usually  timid.  On  this  occasion,  how- 
ever, possibly  because  they  were  thirsty  and  were 
seeking  water  holes  in  the  upper  courses  of  a little 
swale,  they  stopped  and  allowed  me  to  observe  them 
closely.  The  fleece  of  the  alpaca  is  one  of  the  softest 
in  the  world.  However,  due  to  the  fact  that  shrewd 
tradesmen,  finding  that  the  fabric  manufactured 
from  alpaca  wool  was  highly  desired,  many  years 
ago  gave  the  name  to  a far  cheaper  fabric,  the 
“alpaca”  of  commerce,  a material  used  for  coat 
linings,  umbrellas,  and  thin,  warm-weather  coats, 
is  a fabric  of  cotton  and  wool,  with  a hard  surface, 
and  generally  dyed  black.  It  usually  contains  no 
real  alpaca  wool  at  all,  and  is  fairly  cheap.  The  real 


INCA  LAND 


64 

alpaca  wool  which  comes  into  the  market  to-day  is 
not  so  called.  Long  and  silky,  straighter  than  the 
sheep’s  wool,  it  is  strong,  small  of  fiber,  very  soft, 
pliable  and  elastic.  It  is  capable  of  being  woven  into 
fabrics  of  great  beauty  and  comfort.  Many  of  the 
silky,  fluffy,  knitted  garments  that  command  the 
highest  prices  for  winter  wear,  and  which  are  called 
by  various  names,  such  as  “ vicuna,”  “ camel’s  hair,” 
etc.,  are  really  made  of  alpaca. 

The  alpaca,  like  its  cousin,  the  llama,  was  proba- 
bly domesticated  by  the  early  Peruvians  from  the 
wild  guanaco,  largest  of  the  camels  of  the  New 
World.  The  guanaco  still  exists  in  a wild  state  and  is 
always  of  uniform  coloration.  Llamas  and  alpacas 
are  extremely  variegated.  The  llama  has  so  coarse 
a hair  that  it  is  seldom  woven  into  cloth  for  wearing 
apparel,  although  heavy  blankets  made  from  it  are 
in  use  by  the  natives.  Bred  to  be  a beast  of  burden, 
the  llama  is  accustomed  to  the  presence  of  strangers 
and  is  not  any  more  timid  of  them  than  our  horses 
and  cows.  The  alpaca,  however,  requiring  better 
and  scarcer  forage  — short,  tender  grass  and  plenty 
of  water  — frequents  the  most  remote  and  lofty  of 
the  mountain  pastures,  is  handled  only  when  the 
fleece  is  removed,  seldom  sees  any  one  except  the 
peaceful  shepherds,  and  is  extremely  shy  of  stran- 
gers, although  not  nearlyas  timid  as  itsdistant  cousin 
the  vicuna.  I shall  never  forget  the  first  time  I ever 
saw  some  alpacas.  They  looked  for  all  the  world 
like  the  “woolly-dogs”  of  our  toys  shops  — woolly 
along  the  neck  right  up  to  the  eyes  and  woolly  along 
the  legs  right  down  to  the  invisible  wheels!  There 


TO  PARINACOCHAS 


65 


was  something  inexpressibly  comic  about  these  long- 
legged  animals.  They  look  like  toys  on  wheels,  but 
actually  they  can  gallop  like  cows. 

The  llama,  with  far  less  hair  on  head,  neck,  and 
legs,  is  also  amusing,  but  in  a different  way.  His  ex- 
pression is  haughty  and  supercilious  in  the  extreme. 
He  usually  looks  as  though  his  presence  near  one 
is  due  to  circumstances  over  which  he  really  had 
no  control.  Pride  of  race  and  excessive  haughti- 
ness lead  him  to  carry  his  head  so  high  and  his  neck 
so  stiffly  erect  that  he  can  be  corralled,  with  others 
of  his  kind,  by  a single  rope  passed  around  the  necks 
of  the  entire  group.  Yet  he  can  be  bought  for  ten 
dollars. 

On  the  pasture  lands  of  Ajochiucha  there  were 
many  ewes  and  lambs,  both  of  llamas  and  alpacas. 
Even  the  shepherds  were  mostly  children,  more 
timid  than  their  charges.  They  crouched  incon- 
spicuously behind  rocks  and  shrubs,  endeavoring  to 
escape  our  notice.  About  five  o’clock  in  the  after- 
noon, on  a dry  pampa,  we  found  the  ruins  of  one  of 
the  largest  known  Inca  storehouses,  Chichipampa, 
an  interesting  reminder  of  the  days  when  benevo- 
lent despots  ruled  the  Andes  and,  like  the  Pharaohs 
of  old,  provided  against  possible  famine.  The  local- 
ity is  not  occupied,  yet  near  by  are  populous  valleys. 

As  soon  as  we  left  our  camp  the  next  morning,  we 
came  abruptly  to  the  edge  of  the  Lampa  Valley. 
This  was  another  of  the  mile-deep  canyons  so 
characteristic  of  this  region.  Our  pack  mules 
grunted  and  groaned  as  they  picked  their  way  down 
the  corkscrew  trail.  It  overhangs  the  mud-colored 


66 


INCA  LAND 


Indian  town  of  Colta,  a rather  scattered  collection 
of  a hundred  or  more  huts.  Here  again,  as  in  the 
Cotahuasi  Valley,  are  hundreds  of  ancient  terraces, 
extending  for  thousands  of  feet  up  the  sides  of  the 
canyon.  Many  of  them  were  badly  out  of  repair,  but 
those  near  Colta  were  still  being  used  for  raising 
crops  of  corn,  potatoes,  and  barley.  The  unculti- 
vated spots  were  covered  with  cacti,  thorn  bushes, 
and  the  gnarled,  stunted  trees  of  a semi-arid  region. 
In  the  town  itself  were  half  a dozen  specimens  of  the 
Australian  eucalyptus,  that  agreeable  and  extraor- 
dinarily successful  colonist  which  one  encounters 
not  only  in  the  heart  of  Peru,  but  in  the  Andes  of 
Colombia  and  the  new  forest  preserves  of  California 
and  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

Colta  has  a few  two-storied  houses,  with  tiled 
roofs.  Some  of  them  have  open  verandas  on  the 
second  floor  — a sure  indication  that  the  climate  is 
at  times  comfortable.  Their  walls  are  built  of  sun- 
dried  adobe,  and  so  are  the  walls  of  the  little  grass- 
thatched  huts  of  the  majority.  Judging  by  the 
rather  irregular  plan  of  the  streets  and  the  great 
number  of  terraces  in  and  around  town,  one  may 
conclude  that  Colta  goes  far  back  of  the  sixteenth 
century  and  the  days  of  the  Spanish  Conquest,  as 
indeed  do  most  Peruvian  towns.  The  cities  of  Lima 
and  Arequipa  are  noteworthy  exceptions.  Leaving 
Colta,  we  wound  around  the  base  of  the  projecting 
ridge,  on  the  sides  of  which  were  many  evidences  of 
ancient  culture,  and  came  into  the  valley  of  Huan- 
cahuanca,  a large  arid  canyon.  The  guide  said  that 
we  were  nearing  Parinacochas.  Not  many  miles 


INCA  STOREHOUSES  AT  CHICHIPAMPA,  NEAR  COLTA 


TO  PARINACOCHAS  67 

away,  across  two  canyons,  was  a snow-capped 
peak,  Sarasara. 

Lampa,  the  chief  town  in  the  Huancahuanca 
Canyon,  lies  on  a great  natural  terrace  of  gravel  and 
alluvium  more  than  a thousand  feet  above  the  river. 
Part  of  the  terrace  seemed  to  be  irrigated  and  un- 
der cultivation.  It  was  proposed  by  the  energetic 
farmers  at  the  time  of  our  visit  to  enlarge  the  system 
of  irrigation  so  as  to  enable  them  to  cultivate  a 
larger  part  of  the  pampa  on  which  they  lived.  In 
fact,  the  new  irrigation  scheme  was  actually  in 
process  of  being  carried  out  and  has  probably  long 
since  been  completed.  Our  reception  in  Lampa  was 
not  cordial.  It  will  be  remembered  that  our  military 
escort,  Corporal  Gamarra,  had  gone  back  to  Are- 
quipa  with  Dr.  Bowman.  Our  two  excellent  arrieros , 
the  Tejada  brothers,  declared  they  preferred  to 
travel  without  any  “ brass  buttons/’  so  we  had  not 
asked  the  sub-prefect  of  Cotahuasi  to  send  one  of 
his  small  handful  of  gendarmes  along  with  us.  Prob- 
ably this  was  a mistake.  Unless  one  is  traveling 
in  Peru  on  some  easily  understood  matter,  such  as 
prospecting  for  mines  or  representing  one  of  the 
great  importing  and  commission  houses,  or  actu- 
ally peddling  goods,  one  cannot  help  arousing  the 
natural  suspicions  of  a people  to  whom  traveling 
on  muleback  for  pleasure  is  unthinkable,  and  scien- 
tific exploration  for  its  own  sake  is  incomprehen- 
sible. Of  course,  if  the  explorers  arrive  accompanied 
by  a gendarme  it  is  perfectly  evident  that  the  enter- 
prise has  the  approval  and  probably  the  financial 
backing  of  the  government.  It  is  surmised  that  the 


68 


INCA  LAND 


explorers  are  well  paid,  and  what  would  be  otherwise 
inconceivable  becomes  merely  one  of  the  ordinary 
experiences  of  life.  South  American  governments 
almost  without  exception  are  paternalistic,  and 
their  citizens  are  led  to  expect  that  all  measures  con- 
nected with  research,  whether  it  be  scientific,  eco- 
nomic, or  social,  are  to  be  conducted  by  the  govern- 
ment and  paid  for  out  of  the  national  treasury. 
Individual  enterprise  is  not  encouraged.  During  all 
my  preceding  exploration  in  Peru  I had  had  such 
an  easy  time  that  I not  only  forgot,  but  failed  to 
realize,  how  often  an  ever-present  gendarme , pro- 
vided through  the  courtesy  of  President  Leguia’s 
government,  had  quieted  suspicions  and  assured  us 
a cordial  welcome. 

Now,  however,  when  without  a gendarme  we 
entered  the  smart  little  town  of  Lampa,  we  found 
ourselves  immediately  and  unquestionably  the  ob- 
jects of  extreme  suspicion  and  distrust.  Yet  we 
could  not  help  admiring  the  well-swept  streets, 
freshly  whitewashed  houses,  and  general  air  of 
prosperity  and  enterprise.  The  gobernador  of  the 
town  lived  on  the  main  street  in  a red-tiled  house, 
whose  courtyard  and  colonnade  were  probably  two 
hundred  years  old.  He  had  heard  nothing  of  our 
undertaking  from  the  government.  His  friends 
urged  him  to  take  some  hostile  action.  Fortunately, 
our  arrieros , respectable  men  of  high  grade,  although 
strangers  in  Lampa,  were  able  to  allay  his  suspicions 
temporarily.  We  were  not  placed  under  arrest, 
although  I am  sure  his  action  was  not  approved  by 
the  very  suspicious  town  councilors,  who  found  it  far 


TO  PARINACOCHAS 


69 


easier  to  suggest  reasons  for  our  being  fugitives  from 
justice  than  to  understand  the  real  object  of  our 
journey. 

The  very  fact  that  we  were  bound  for  Lake  Pari- 
nacochas,  a place  well  known  in  Lampa,  added  to 
their  suspicion.  It  seems  that  Lampa  is  famous  for 
its  weavers,  who  utilize  the  wool  of  the  countless 
herds  of  sheep,  alpacas,  and  vicunas  in  this  vicinity 
to  make  ponchos  and  blankets  of  high  grade,  much 
desired  not  only  in  this  locality  but  even  in  Are- 
quipa.  These  are  marketed,  as  so  often  happens  in 
the  outlying  parts  of  the  world,  at  a great  annual 
fair,  attended  by  traders  who  come  hundreds  of 
miles,  bringing  the  manufactured  articles  of  the 
outer  world  and  seeking  the  highly  desired  products 
of  these  secluded  towns.  The  great  fair  for  this 
vicinity  has  been  held,  for  untold  generations,  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Parinacochas.  Every  one  is 
anxious  to  attend  the  fair,  which  is  an  occasion  for 
seeing  one’s  friends,  an  opportunity  for  jollification, 
carousing,  and  general  enjoyment  — like  a large 
county  fair  at  home.  Except  for  this  annual  fair 
week,  the  basin  of  Parinacochas  is  as  bleak  and 
desolate  as  our  own  fair-grounds,  with  scarcely  a 
house  to  be  seen  except  those  that  are  used  for  the 
purposes  of  the  fair.  Had  we  been  bound  for  Parina- 
cochas at  the  proper  season  nothing  could  have  been 
more  reasonable  and  praiseworthy.  Why  anybody 
should  want  to  go  to  Parinacochas  during  one  of  the 
other  fifty-one  weeks  in  the  year  was  utterly  beyond 
the  comprehension  or  understanding  of  these  village 
worthies.  So,  to  our  “selectmen,”  are  the  idiosyn- 


70 


INCA  LAND 


crasies  of  itinerant  gypsies  who  wish  to  camp  in  our 
deserted  fair-grounds. 

The  Tejadas  were  not  anxious  to  spend  the  night 
in  town  — probably  because,  according  to  our  con- 
tract, the  cost  of  feeding  the  mules  devolved  entirely 
upon  them  and  fodder  is  always  far  more  expensive 
in  town  than  in  the  country.  It  was  just  as  well  for 
us  that  this  was  so,  for  I am  sure  that  before  morn- 
ing the  village  gossips  would  have  persuaded  the 
gobernador  to  arrest  us.  As  it  was,  however,  he  was 
pleasant  and  hospitable,  and  considerably  amused  at 
the  embarrassment  of  an  Indian  woman  who  was 
weaving  at  a hand  loom  in  his  courtyard  and  whom 
we  desired  to  photograph.  She  could  not  easily  es- 
cape, for  she  was  sitting  on  the  ground  with  one  end 
of  the  loom  fastened  around  her  waist,  the  other  end 
tied  to  a eucalyptus  tree.  So  she  covered  her  eyes 
and  mouth  with  her  hands,  and  almost  wept  with 
mortification  at  our  strange  procedure.  Peruvian 
Indian  women  are  invariably  extremely  shy,  rarely 
like  to  be  photographed,  and  are  anxious  only  to 
escape  observation  and  notice.  The  ladies  of  the 
gobernador' s own  family,  however,  of  mixed  Span- 
ish and  Indian  ancestry,  not  only  had  no  objection 
to  being  photographed,  but  were  moved  to  un- 
seemly and  unsympathetic  laughter  at  the  predica- 
ment of  their  unfortunate  sister. 

After  leaving  Lampa  we  found  ourselves  on  the 
best  road  that  we  had  seen  in  a long  time.  Its 
excellence  was  undoubtedly  due  to  the  enterprise 
and  energy  of  the  people  of  this  pleasant  town.  One 
might  expect  that  citizens  who  kept  their  town  so 


TO  PARINACOCHAS 


7 1 


clean  and  neat  and  were  engaged  in  the  unusual  act 
of  constructing  new  irrigation  works  would  have  a 
comfortable  road  in  the  direction  toward  which  they 
usually  would  wish  to  go,  namely,  toward  the  coast. 

As  we  climbed  out  of  the  Huancahuanca  Valley 
we  noticed  no  evidences  of  ancient  agricultural  ter- 
races, either  on  the  sides  of  the  valley  or  on  the 
alluvial  plain  which  has  given  rise  to  the  town  of 
Lampa  and  whose  products  have  made  its  people 
well  fed  and  energetic.  The  town  itself  seems  to  be 
of  modern  origin.  One  wonders  why  there  are  so 
few,  if  any,  evidences  of  the  ancient  regime  when 
there  are  so  many  a short  distance  away  in  Colta 
and  the  valley  around  it.  One  cannot  believe  that 
the  Incas  would  have  overlooked  such  a fine  agri- 
cultural opportunity  as  an  extensive  alluvial  terrace 
in  a region  where  there  is  so  little  arable  land.  Pos- 
sibly the  very  excellence  of  the  land  and  its  relative 
flatness  rendered  artificial  terracing  unnecessary  in 
the  minds  of  the  ancient  people  who  lived  here. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  may  have  been  occupied  until 
late  Inca  times  by  one  of  the  coast  tribes.  Whatever 
the  cause,  certainly  the  deep  canyon  of  Huanca- 
huanca divides  two  very  different  regions.  To 
come  in  a few  hours,  from  thickly  terraced  Colta 
to  unterraced  Lampa  was  so  striking  as  to  give  us 
cause  for  thought  and  speculation.  It  is  well  known 
that  in  the  early  days  before  the  Inca  conquest  of 
Peru,  not  so  very  long  before  the  Spanish  Conquest, 
there  were  marked  differences  between  the  tribes 
who  inhabited  the  high  plateau  and  those  who  lived 
along  the  shore  of  the  Pacific.  Their  pottery  is  as 


72 


INCA  LAND 


different  as  possible  in  design  and  ornamentation; 
the  architecture  of  their  cities  and  temples  is  ab- 
solutely distinct.  Relative  abundance  of  flat  lands 
never  led  them  to  develop  terracing  to  the  same 
extent  that  the  mountain  people  had  done.  Per- 
haps on  this  alluvial  terrace  there  lived  a remnant 
of  the  coastal  peoples.  Excavation  would  show. 

Scarcely  had  we  climbed  out  of  the  valley  of 
Huancahuanca  and  surmounted  the  ridge  when  we 
came  in  sight  of  more  artificial  terraces.  Beyond  a 
broad,  deep  valley  rose  the  extinct  volcanic  cone  of 
Mt.  Sarasara,  now  relatively  close  at  hand,  its  lower 
slopes  separated  from  us  by  another  canyon.  Snow 
lay  in  the  gulches  and  ravines  near  the  top  of  the 
mountain.  Our  road  ran  near  the  towns  of  Pararca 
and  Colcabamba,  the  latter  much  like  Colta,  a 
straggling  village  of  thatched  huts  surrounded  by 
hundreds  of  terraces.  The  vegetation  on  the  valley 
slopes  indicated  occasional  rains.  Near  Pararca  we 
passed  fields  of  barley  and  wheat  growing  on  old 
stone-faced  terraces.  On  every  hand  were  signs  of 
a fairly  large  population  engaged  in  agriculture, 
utilizing  fields  which  had  been  carefully  prepared 
for  them  by  their  ancestors.  They  were  not  using  all, 
however.  We  noticed  hundreds  of  terraces  that  did 
not  appear  to  have  been  under  cultivation  recently. 
They  may  have  been  lying  fallow  temporarily. 

Our  arrieros  avoided  the  little  towns,  and  selected 
a camp  site  on  the  roadside  near  the  Finca  Rodadero. 
After  all,  when  one  has  a comfortable  tent,  good  food, 
and  skillful  arrieros  it  is  far  pleasanter  to  spend  the 
night  in  the  clean,  open  country,  even  at  an  eleva- 


TO  PARINACOCHAS  73 

tion  of  12,000  or  13,000  feet,  than  to  be  surrounded 
by  the  smells  and  noises  of  an  Indian  town. 

The  next  morning  we  went  through  some  wheat 
fields,  past  the  town  of  Puyusca,  another  large 
Indian  village  of  thatched  adobe  houses  placed 
high  on  the  shoulder  of  a rocky  hill  so  as  to  leave  the 
best  arable  land  available  for  agriculture.  It  is  in  a 
shallow,  well-watered  valley,  full  of  springs.  The 
appearance  of  the  country  had  changed  entirely 
since  we  left  Cotahuasi.  The  desert  and  its  steep- 
walled  canyons  seemed  to  be  far  behind  us.  Here 
was  a region  of  gently  sloping  hills,  covered  with 
terraces,  where  the  cereals  of  the  temperate  zone 
appeared  to  be  easily  grown.  Finally,  leaving  the 
grain  fields,  we  climbed  up  to  a shallow  depression 
in  the  low  range  at  the  head  of  the  valley  and  found 
ourselves  on  the  rim  of  a great  upland  basin  more 
than  twenty  miles  across.  In  the  center  of  the  basin 
was  a large,  oval  lake.  Its  borders  were  pink.  The 
water  in  most  of  the  lake  was  dark  blue,  but  near 
the  shore  the  water  was  pink,  a light  salmon-pink. 
What  could  give  it  such  a curious  color?  Nothing 
but  flamingoes,  countless  thousands  of  flamingoes  — 
Parinacochas  at  last! 


CHAPTER  IV 


FLAMINGO  LAKE 


HE  Parinacochas  Basin  is  at  an  elevation  of 


between  11,500  and  12,000  feet  above  sea  level. 
It  is  about  150  miles  northwest  of  Arequipa  and  170 
miles  southwest  of  Cuzco,  and  enjoys  a fair  amount 
of  rainfall.  The  lake  is  fed  by  springs  and  small 
streams.  In  past  geological  times  the  lake,  then 
very  much  larger,  had  an  outlet  not  far  from  the 
town  of  Puyusca.  At  present  Parinacochas  has  no 
visible  outlet.  It  is  possible  that  the  large  springs 
which  we  noticed  as  we  came  up  the  valley  by 
Puyusca  may  be  fed  from  the  lake.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  found  numerous  small  springs  on  the  very 
borders  of  the  lake,  generally  occurring  in  swampy 
hillocks  — built  up  perhaps  by  mineral  deposits  — 
three  or  four  feet  higher  than  the  surrounding  plain. 
There  are  very  old  beach  marks  well  above  the 
shore.  The  natives  told  us  that  in  the  wet  season 
the  lake  was  considerably  higher  than  at  present, 
although  we  could  find  no  recent  evidence  to  indi- 
cate that  it  had  been  much  more  than  a foot  above 
its  present  level.  Nevertheless  a rise  of  a foot  would 
enlarge  the  area  of  the  lake  considerably. 

When  making  preparations  in  New  Haven  for  the 
“bathymetric  survey  of  Lake  Parinacochas,”  sug- 
gested by  Sir  Clements  Markham,  we  found  it  im- 
possible to  discover  any  indication  in  geographical 


FLAMINGO  LAKE 


75 


literature  as  to  whether  the  depth  of  the  lake  might 
be  ten  feet  or  ten  thousand  feet.  We  decided  to  take 
a chance  on  its  not  being  more  than  ten  hundred 
feet.  With  the  kind  assistance  of  Mr.  George  Bas- 
sett, I secured  a thousand  feet  of  stout  fish  line, 
known  to  anglers  as  “ 24  thread,”  wound  on  a large 
wooden  reel  for  convenience  in  handling.  While  we 
were  at  Chuquibamba  Mr.  Watkins  had  spent  many 
weary  hours  inserting  one  hundred  and  sixty-six 
white  and  red  cloth  markers  at  six-foot  intervals  in 
the  strands  of  this  heavy  line,  so  that  we  might  be 
able  more  rapidly  to  determine  the  result  in  fathoms. 

Arrived  at  a low  peninsula  on  the  north  shore  of 
the  lake,  Tucker  and  I pitched  our  camp,  sent  our 
mules  back  to  Puyusca  for  fodder,  and  set  up  the 
Acme  folding  boat,  which  we  had  brought  so  many 
miles  on  muleback,  for  the  sounding  operations. 
The  “Acme”  proved  easy  to  assemble,  although 
this  was  our  first  experience  with  it.  Its  lightness 
enabled  it  to  be  floated  at  the  edge  of  the  lake  even 
in  very  shallow  water,  and  its  rigidity  was  much 
appreciated  in  the  late  afternoon  when  the  high 
winds  raised  a vicious  little  “sea.”  Rowing  out  on 
waters  which  we  were  told  by  the  natives  had  never 
before  been  navigated  by  craft  of  any  kind,  I began 
to  take  soundings.  Lake  Titicaca  is  over  nine  hun- 
dred feet  deep.  It  would  be  aggravating  if  Lake 
Parinacochas  should  prove  to  be  over  a thousand, 
for  I had  brought  no  extra  line.  Even  nine  hundred 
feet  would  make  sounding  slow  work,  and  the  lake 
covered  an  area  of  over  seventy  square  miles. 

It  was  with  mixed  feelings  of  trepidation  and  ex- 


INCA  LAND 


7 6 

pectation  that  I rowed  out  five  miles  from  shore  and 
made  a sounding.  Holding  the  large  reel  firmly  in 
both  hands,  I cast  the  lead  overboard.  The  reel 
gave  a turn  or  two  and  stopped.  Something  was 
wrong.  The  line  did  not  run  out.  Was  the  reel 
stuck?  No,  the  apparatus  was  in  perfect  running 
order.  Then  what  was  the  matter?  The  bottom  was 
too  near!  Alas  for  all  the  pains  that  Mr.  Bassett 
had  taken  to  put  a thousand  feet  of  the  best  strong 
24-thread  line  on  one  reel!  Alas  for  Mr.  Watkins 
and  his  patient  insertion  of  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
six  “fathom-markers”!  The  bottom  of  the  lake  was 
only  four  feet  away  from  the  bottom  of  my  boat! 
After  three  or  four  days  of  strenuous  rowing  up  and 
down  the  eighteen  miles  of  the  lake’s  length,  and 
back  and  forth  across  the  seventeen  miles  of  its 
width,  I never  succeeded  in  wetting  Watkins’s  first 
marker!  Several  hundred  soundings  failed  to  show 
more  than  five  feet  of  water  anywhere.  Possibly 
if  we  had  come  in  the  rainy  season  we  might  at  least 
have  wet  one  marker,  but  at  the  time  of  our  visit 
(November,  191 1),  the  lake  had  a maximum  depth 
of  4^  feet.  The  satisfaction  of  making  this  slight 
contribution  to  geographic  knowledge  was,  I fear, 
lost  in  the  chagrin  of  not  finding  a really  noteworthy 
body  of  water. 

Who  would  have  thought  that  so  long  a lake  could 
be  so  shallow?  However,  my  feelings  were  soothed 
by  remembering  the  story  of  the  captain  of  a man- 
of-war  who  was  once  told  that  the  salt  lake  near  one 
of  the  red  hills  between  Honolulu  and  Pearl  Harbor 
was  reported  by  the  natives  to  be  “bottomless.” 


FLAMINGO  LAKE 


77 


He  ordered  one  of  the  ship’s  heavy  boats  to  be  car- 
ried from  the  shore  several  miles  inland  to  the  salt 
lake,  at  great  expenditure  of  strength  and  labor. 
The  story  told  me  in  my  boyhood  does  not  say  how 
much  sounding  line  was  brought.  Anyhow,  they 
found  this  “fathomless”  body  of  water  to  be  not 
more  than  fifteen  feet  deep. 

Notwithstanding  my  disappointment  at  the  depth 
of  Parinacochas,  I was  very  glad  that  we  had 
brought  the  little  folding  boat,  for  it  enabled  me  to 
float  gently  about  among  the  myriads  of  birds  which 
use  the  shallow  waters  of  the  lake  as  a favorite  feed- 
ing ground;  pink  flamingoes,  white  gulls,  small 
“divers,”  large  black  ducks,  sandpipers,  black  ibis, 
teal  ducks,  and  large  geese.  On  the  banks  were 
ground  owls  and  woodpeckers.  It  is  not  surprising 
that  the  natives  should  have  named  this  body  of 
water  “Parinacochas”  ( Parina  = “flamingo,”  co - 
chas  = “lake”).  The  flamingoes  are  here  in  incred- 
ible multitudes;  they  far  outnumber  all  other  birds, 
and  as  I have  said,  actually  make  the  shallow  waters 
of  the  lake  look  pink.  Fortunately  they  had  not  been 
hunted  for  their  plumage  and  were  not  timid.  After 
two  days  of  familiarity  with  the  boat  they  were 
willing  to  let  me  approach  within  twenty  yards 
before  finally  taking  wing.  The  coloring,  in  this 
land  of  drab  grays  and  browns,  was  a delight  to  the 
eye.  The  head  is  white,  the  beak  black,  the  neck 
white  shading  into  salmon-pink;  the  body  pinkish 
white  on  the  back,  the  breast  white,  and  the  tail 
salmon-pink.  The  wings  are  salmon-pink  in  front, 
but  the  tips  and  the  under-parts  are  black.  As  they 


INCA  LAND 


78 

stand  or  wade  in  the  water  their  general  appearance 
is  chiefly  pink-and-white.  When  they  rise  from  the 
water,  however,  the  black  under-parts  of  the  wings 
become  strikingly  conspicuous  and  cause  a flock 
of  flying  flamingoes  to  be  a wonderful  contrast  in 
black-and-white.  When  flying,  the  flamingo  seems 
to  keep  his  head  moving  steadily  forward  at  an  even 
pace,  although  the  ropelike  neck  undulates  with  the 
slow  beating  of  the  wings.  I could  not  be  sure  that  it 
was  not  an  optical  delusion.  Nevertheless,  I thought 
the  heavy  body  was  propelled  irregularly,  while  the 
head  moved  forward  at  uniform  speed,  the  differ- 
ence being  caught  up  in  the  undulations  of  the  neck. 

The  flamingo  is  an  amusing  bird  to  watch.  With 
its  haughty  Roman  nose  and  long,  ropelike  neck, 
which  it  coils  and  twists  in  a most  incredible  man- 
ner, it  seems  specially  intended  to  distract  one's 
mind  from  bathymetric  disappointments.  Its  hoarse 
croaking,  “What  is  it,”  “What  is  it,”  seemed  to 
express  deep-throated  sympathy  with  the  sounding 
operations.  On  one  bright  moonlight  night  the 
flamingoes  were  very  noisy,  keeping  up  a continual 
clatter  of  very  hoarse  “ What-is-it’s.”  Apparently 
they  failed  to  find  out  the  answer  in  time  to  go  to 
bed  at  the  proper  time,  for  next  morning  we  found 
them  all  sound  asleep,  standing  in  quiet  bays  with 
their  heads  tucked  under  their  wings.  During  the 
course  of  the  forenoon,  when  the  water  was  quiet, 
they  waded  far  out  into  the  lake.  In  the  afternoon, 
as  winds  and  waves  arose,  they  came  in  nearer  the 
shores,  but  seldom  left  the  water.  The  great  extent  of 
shallow  water  in  Parinacochas  offers  them  a splen- 


FLAMINGOES  ON  LAKE  PARINACOCHAS,  AND  MT.  SARASARA 


FLAMINGO  LAKE 


79 


did,  wide  feeding  ground.  We  wondered  where  they 
all  came  from.  Apparently  they  do  not  breed  here. 
Although  there  were  thousands  and  thousands  of 
birds,  we  could  find  no  flamingo  nests,  either  old  or 
new,  search  as  we  would.  It  offers  a most  interest- 
ing problem  for  some  enterprising  biological  ex- 
plorer. Probably  Mr.  Frank  Chapman  will  some 
day  solve  it. 

Next  in  number  to  the  flamingoes  were  the  beauti- 
ful white  gulls  (or  terns?),  looking  strangely  out  of 
place  in  this  Andean  lake  11,500  feet  above  the  sea. 
They  usually  kept  together  in  flocks  of  several  hun- 
dred. There  were  quantities  of  small  black  divers  in 
the  deeper  parts  of  the  lake  where  the  flamingoes  did 
not  go.  The  divers  were  very  quick  and  keen,  true 
individualists  operating  alone  and  showing  aston- 
ishing ability  in  swimming  long  distances  under 
water.  The  large  black  ducks  were  much  more  fear- 
less than  the  flamingoes  and  were  willing  to  swim 
very  near  the  canoe.  When  frightened,  they  raced 
over  the  water  at  a tremendous  pace,  using  both 
wings  and  feet  in  their  efforts  to  escape.  These 
ducks  kept  in  large  flocks  and  were  about  as  com- 
mon as  the  small  divers.  Here  and  there  in  the 
lake  were  a few  tiny  little  islands,  each  containing  a 
single  deserted  nest,  possibly  belonging  to  an  ibis  or 
a duck.  In  the  banks  of  a low  stream  near  our  first 
camp  were  holes  made  by  woodpeckers,  who  in  this 
country  look  in  vain  for  trees  and  telegraph  poles. 

Occasionally,  a mile  or  so  from  shore,  my  boat 
would  startle  a great  amphibious  ox  standing  in  the 
water  up  to  his  middle,  calmly  eating  the  succulent 


8o 


INCA  LAND 


water  grass.  To  secure  it  he  had  to  plunge  his  head 
and  neck  well  under  the  surface. 

While  I was  raising  blisters  and  frightening  oxen 
and  flamingoes,  Mr.  Tucker  triangulated  the  Parina- 
cochas  Basin,  making  the  first  accurate  map  of  this 
vicinity.  As  he  carried  his  theodolite  from  point  to 
point  he  often  stirred  up  little  ground  owls,  who 
gazed  at  him  with  solemn,  reproachful  looks.  And 
they  were  not  the  only  individuals  to  regard  his 
activities  with  suspicion  and  dislike.  Part  of  my 
work  was  to  construct  signal  stations  by  piling  rocks 
at  conspicuous  points  on  the  well-rounded  hills  so 
as  to  enable  the  triangulation  to  proceed  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  During  the  night  some  of  these  signal 
stations  would  disappear,  torn  down  by  the  super- 
stitious shepherds  who  lived  in  scattered  clusters  of 
huts  and  declined  to  have  strange  gods  set  up  in 
their  vicinity.  Perhaps  they  thought  their  pastures 
were  being  preempted.  We  saw  hundreds  of  their 
sheep  and  cattle  feeding  on  flat  lands  formerly  the 
bed  of  the  lake.  The  hills  of  the  Parinacochas  Basin 
are  bare  of  trees,  and  offer  some  pasturage.  In  some 
places  they  are  covered  with  broken  rock.  The  grass 
was  kept  closely  cropped  by  the  degenerate  descend- 
ants of  sheep  brought  into  the  country  during  Span- 
ish colonial  days.  They  were  small  in  size  and 
mostly  white  in  color,  although  there  were  many 
black  ones.  We  were  told  that  the  sheep  were  worth 
about  fifty  cents  apiece  here. 

On  our  first  arrival  at  Parinacochas  we  were  left 
severely  alone  by  the  shepherds ; but  two  days  later 
curiosity  slowly  overcame  their  shyness,  and  a 


FLAMINGO  LAKE 


81 


group  of  young  shepherds  and  shepherdesses  gradu- 
ally brought  their  grazing  flocks  nearer  and  nearer 
the  camp,  in  order  to  gaze  stealthily  on  these  strange 
visitors,  who  lived  in  a cloth  house,  actually  moved 
over  the  forbidding  waters  of  the  lake,  and  busied 
themselves  from  day  to  day  with  strange  magic, 
raising  and  lowering  a glittering  glass  eye  on  a 
tripod.  The  women  wore  dresses  of  heavy  material, 
the  skirts  reaching  halfway  from  knee  to  ankle.  In 
lieu  of  hats  they  had  small  variegated  shawls,  made 
on  hand  looms,  folded  so  as  to  make  a pointed  bon- 
net over  the  head  and  protect  the  neck  and  shoul- 
ders from  sun  and  wind.  Each  woman  was  busily 
spinning  with  a hand  spindle,  but  carried  her  baby 
and  its  gear  and  blankets  in  a hammock  or  sling 
attached  to  a tump-line  that  went  over  her  head. 
These  sling  carry-alls  were  neatly  woven  of  soft 
wool  and  decorated  with  attractive  patterns.  Both 
women  and  boys  were  barefooted.  The  boys  wore 
old  felt  hats  of  native  manufacture,  and  coats  and 
long  trousers  much  too  large  for  them. 

At  one  end  of  the  upland  basin  rises  the  graceful 
cone  of  Mt.  Sarasara.  The  view  of  its  snow-capped 
peak  reflected  in  the  glassy  waters  of  the  lake  in  the 
early  morning  was  one  long  to  be  remembered. 
Sarasara  must  once  have  been  much  higher  than  it 
is  at  present.  Its  volcanic  cone  has  been  sharply 
eroded  by  snow  and  ice.  In  the  days  of  its  greater 
altitude,  and  consequently  wider  snow  fields,  the 
melting  snows  probably  served  to  make  Parinaco- 
chas  a very  much  larger  body  of  water.  Although  we 
were  here  at  the  beginning  of  summer,  the  wind  that 


8 2 


INCA  LAND 


came  down  from  the  mountain  at  night  was  very 
cold.  Our  minimum  thermometer  registered  22°  F. 
near  the  banks  of  the  lake  at  night.  Nevertheless, 
there  was  only  a very  thin  film  of  ice  on  the  borders 
of  the  lake  in  the  morning,  and  except  in  the  most 
shallow  bays  there  was  no  ice  visible  far  from  the 
bank.  The  temperature  of  the  water  at  io:oo  a.m. 
near  the  shore,  and  ten  inches  below  the  surface,  was 
6i°  F.,  while  farther  out  it  was  three  or  four  degrees 
warmer.  By  noon  the  temperature  of  the  water 
half  a mile  from  shore  was  67.5°  F.  Shortly  after 
noon  a strong  wind  came  up  from  the  coast,  stirring 
up  the  shallow  water  and  cooling  it.  Soon  after- 
wards the  temperature  of  the  water  began  to  fall, 
and,  although  the  hot  sun  was  shining  brightly 
almost  directly  overhead,  it  went  down  to  65°  by 
2:30  P.M. 

The  water  of  the  lake  is  brackish,  yet  we  were 
able  to  make  our  camps  on  the  banks  of  small 
streams  of  sweet  water,  although  in  each  case  near 
the  shore  of  the  lake.  A specimen  of  the  water,  taken 
near  the  shore,  was  brought  back  to  New  Haven 
and  analyzed  by  Dr.  George  S.  Jamieson  of  the 
Sheffield  Scientific  School.  He  found  that  it  con- 
tained small  quantities  of  silica,  iron  phosphate, 
magnesium  carbonate,  calcium  carbonate,  calcium 
sulphate,  potassium  nitrate,  potassium  sulphate, 
sodium  borate,  sodium  sulphate,  and  a considerable 
quantity  of  sodium  chloride.  Parinacochas  water 
contains  more  carbonate  and  potassium  than  that  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  or  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  As  com- 
pared with  the  salinity  of  typical  “salt”  waters,  that 


FLAMINGO  LAKE 


83 

of  Lake  Parinacochas  occupies  an  intermediate  posi- 
tion, containing  more  than  Lake  Koko-Nor,  less 
than  that  of  the  Atlantic,  and  only  one  twentieth 
the  salinity  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake. 

When  we  moved  to  our  second  camp  the  Tejada 
brothers  preferred  to  let  their  mules  rest  in  the 
Puyusca  Valley,  where  there  was  excellent  alfalfa 
forage.  The  arrieros  engaged  at  their  own  expense 
a pack  train  which  consisted  chiefly  of  Parinacochas 
burros.  It  is  the  custom  hereabouts  to  enclose  the 
packs  in  large-meshed  nets  made  of  rawhide  which 
are  then  fastened  to  the  pack  animal  by  a surcingle. 
The  Indians  who  came  with  the  burro  train  were 
pleasant-faced,  sturdy  fellows,  dressed  in  “store 
clothes”  and  straw  hats.  Their  burros  were  as 
cantankerous  as  donkeys  can  be,  never  fractious  or 
flighty,  but  stubbornly  resisting,  step  by  step,  every 
effort  to  haul  them  near  the  loads. 

Our  second  camp  was  near  the  village  of  Inca- 
huasi,  “the  house  of  the  Inca,”  at  the  northwestern 
corner  of  the  basin.  Raimondi  visited  it  in  1863. 
The  representative  of  the  owner  of  Parinacochas 
occupies  one  of  the  houses.  The  other  buildings  are 
used  only  during  the  third  week  in  August,  at  the 
time  of  the  annual  fair.  In  the  now  deserted  plaza 
were  many  low  stone  rectangles  partly  covered 
with  adobe  and  ready  to  be  converted  into  booths. 
The  plaza  was  surrounded  by  long,  thatched  build- 
ings of  adobe  and  stone,  mostly  of  rough  ashlars. 
A few  ashlars  showed  signs  of  having  been  care- 
fully dressed  by  ancient  stonemasons.  Some  loose 
ashlars  weighed  half  a ton  and  had  baffled  the 
attempts  of  modern  builders. 


84 


INCA  LAND 


In  constructing  the  large  church,  advantage  was 
taken  of  a beautifully  laid  wall  of  close-fitting  ash- 
lars. Incahuasi  was  well  named ; there  had  been  at 
one  time  an  Inca  house  here,  possibly  a temple  — 
lakes  were  once  objects  of  worship  — or  rest-house, 
constructed  in  order  to  enable  the  chiefs  and  tax- 
gatherers  to  travel  comfortably  over  the  vast  do- 
mains of  the  Incas.  We  found  the  slopes  of  the  hills 
of  the  Parinacochas  Basin  to  be  well  covered  with 
remains  of  ancient  terraces.  Probably  potatoes  and 
other  root  crops  were  once  raised  here  in  fairly  large 
quantities.  Perhaps  deforestation  and  subsequent 
increased  aridity  might  account  for  the  desertion  of 
these  once-cultivated  lands.  The  hills  west  of  the 
lake  are  intersected  by  a few  dry  gulches  in  which 
are  caves  that  have  been  used  as  burial  places. 
The  caves  had  at  one  time  been  walled  in  with 
rocks  laid  in  adobe,  but  these  walls  had  been  partly 
broken  down  so  as  to  permit  the  sepulchers  to  be 
rifled  of  whatever  objects  of  value  they  might  have 
contained.  We  found  nine  or  ten  skulls  lying  loose 
in  the  rubble  of  the  caves.  One  of  the  skulls  seemed 
to  have  been  trepanned. 

On  top  of  the  ridge  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
road,  fifty  feet  wide,  a broad  grassy  way  through 
fields  of  loose  stones.  No  effort  had  been  made  at 
grading  or  paving  this  road,  and  there  was  no  evi- 
dence of  its  having  been  used  in  recent  times.  It 
runs  from  the  lake  across  the  ridge  in  a westerly 
direction  toward  a broad  valley,  where  there  are 
many  terraces  and  cultivated  fields;  it  is  not  far 
from  Nasca.  Probably  the  stones  were  picked  up 


FLAMINGO  LAKE 


85 

and  piled  on  each  side  to  save  time  in  driving  cara- 
vans of  llamas  across  the  stony  ridges.  The  llama 
dislikes  to  step  over  any  obstacle,  even  a very  low 
wall.  The  grassy  roadway  would  certainly  encour- 
age the  supercilious  beasts  to  proceed  in  the  desired 
direction. 

In  many  places  on  the  hills  were  to  be  seen  out- 
lines of  large  and  small  rock  circles  and  shelters 
erected  by  herdsmen  for  temporary  protection 
against  the  sudden  storms  of  snow  and  hail  which 
come  up  with  unexpected  fierceness  at  this  elevation 
(12,000  feet).  The  shelters  were  in  a very  ruinous 
state.  They  were  made  of  rough,  scoriaceous  lava 
rocks.  The  circular  enclosures  varied  from  8 to  25 
feet  in  diameter.  Most  of  them  showed  no  evi- 
dences whatever  of  recent  occupation.  The  smaller 
walls  may  have  been  the  foundation  of  small  circu- 
lar huts.  The  larger  walls  were  probably  intended 
as  corrals,  to  keep  alpacas  and  llamas  from  straying 
at  night  and  to  guard  against  wolves  or  coyotes.  I 
confess  to  being  quite  mystified  as  to  the  age  of 
these  remains.  It  is  possible  that  they  represent  a 
settlement  of  shepherds  within  historic  times,  al- 
though, from  the  shape  and  size  of  the  walls,  I am 
inclined  to  doubt  this.  The  shelters  may  have  been 
built  by  the  herdsmen  of  the  Incas.  Anyhow,  those 
on  the  hills  west  of  Parinacochas  had  not  been  used 
for  a long  time.  Nasca,  which  is  not  very  far  away 
to  the  northwest,  was  the  center  of  one  of  the  most 
artistic  pre-Inca  cultures  in  Peru.  It  is  famous  for 
its  very  delicate  pottery. 

Our  third  camp  was  on  the  south  side  of  the  lake. 


86 


INCA  LAND 


Near  us  the  traces  of  the  ancient  road  led  to  the 
ruins  of  two  large,  circular  corrals,  substantiating 
my  belief  that  this  curious  roadway  was  intended 
to  keep  the  llamas  from  straying  at  will  over  the 
pasture  lands.  On  the  south  shores  of  the  lake  there 
were  more  signs  of  occupation  than  on  the  north, 
although  there  is  nothing  so  clearly  belonging  to  the 
time  of  the  Incas  as  the  ashlars  and  finely  built  wall 
at  Incahuasi.  On  top  of  one  of  the  rocky  promon- 
tories we  found  the  rough  stone  foundations  of  the 
walls  of  a little  village.  The  slopes  of  the  promon- 
tory were  nearly  precipitous  on  three  sides.  Forty 
or  fifty  very  primitive  dwellings  had  been  at  one 
time  huddled  together  here  in  a position  which  could 
easily  be  defended.  We  found  among  the  ruins  a few 
crude  potsherds  and  some  bits  of  obsidian.  There 
was  nothing  about  the  ruins  of  the  little  hill  village 
to  give  any  indication  of  Inca  origin.  Probably  it 
goes  back  to  pre-Inca  days.  No  one  could  tell  us 
anything  about  it.  If  there  were  traditions  con- 
cerning it  they  were  well  concealed  by  the  silent, 
superstitious  shepherds  of  the  vicinity.  Possibly 
it  was  regarded  as  an  unlucky  spot,  cursed  by  the 
gods. 

The  neighboring  slopes  showed  faint  evidences  of 
having  been  roughly  terraced  and  cultivated.  The 
tutu  potato  would  grow  here,  a hardy  variety  not 
edible  in  the  fresh  state,  but  considered  highly  de- 
sirable for  making  potato  flour  after  having  been 
repeatedly  frozen  and  its  bitter  juices  all  extracted. 
So  would  other  highland  root  crops  of  the  Peruvians, 
such  as  the  oca}  a relative  of  our  sheep  sorrel,  the 


FLAMINGO  LAKE  87 

ahu,  a kind  of  nasturtium,  and  the  ullucu  (ullucus 
tuber  osus). 

On  the  flats  near  the  shore  were  large  corrals  still 
kept  in  good  repair.  New  walls  were  being  built  by 
the  Indians  at  the  time  of  our  visit.  Near  the  south- 
east corner  of  the  lake  were  a few  modern  huts  built 
of  stone  and  adobe,  with  thatched  roofs,  inhabited 
by  drovers  and  shepherds.  We  saw  more  cattle  at 
the  east  end  of  the  lake  than  elsewhere,  but  they 
seemed  to  prefer  the  sweet  water  grasses  of  the  lake 
to  the  tough  bunch-grass  on  the  slopes  of  Sarasara. 

Viscachas  were  common  amongst  the  gray  lichen- 
covered  rocks.  They  are  hunted  for  their  beauti- 
ful pearly  gray  fur,  the  ‘‘chinchilla”  of  commerce; 
they  are  also  very  good  eating,  so  they  have  dis- 
appeared from  the  more  accessible  parts  of  Peru. 
One  rarely  sees  them,  although  they  may  be  found 
on  bleak  uplands  in  the  mountains  of  Uilcapampa, 
a region  rarely  visited  by  any  one  on  account  of 
treacherous  bogs  and  deep  tarns.  Writers  some- 
times call  viscachas  “rabbit-squirrels.”  They  have 
large,  rounded  ears,  long  hind  legs,  a long,  bushy 
tail,  and  do  look  like  a cross  between  a rabbit  and  a 
gray  squirrel. 

Surmounting  one  of  the  higher  ridges  one  day,  I 
came  suddenly  upon  an  unusually  large  herd  of  wild 
vicunas.  It  included  more  than  one  hundred  in- 
dividuals. Their  relative  fearlessness  also  testified 
to  the  remoteness  of  Parinacochas  and  the  small 
amount  of  hunting  that  is  done  here.  Vicunas  have 
never  been  domesticated,  but  are  often  hunted  for 
their  skins.  Their  silky  fleece  is  even  finer  than 


88 


INCA  LAND 


alpaca.  The  more  fleecy  portions  of  their  skins  are 
sewed  together  to  make  quilts,  as  soft  as  eider  down 
and  of  a golden  brown  color. 

After  Mr.  Tucker  finished  his  triangulation  of  the 
lake  I told  the  arrieros  to  find  the  shortest  road  home. 
They  smiled,  murmured  “ Arequipa,”  and  started 
south.  We  soon  came  to  the  rim  of  the  Maraicasa 
Valley  where,  peeping  up  over  one  of  the  hills  far  to 
the  south,  we  got  a little  glimpse  of  Coropuna.  The 
Maraicasa  Valley  is  well  inhabited  and  there  were 
many  grain  fields  in  sight,  although  few  seemed  to  be 
terraced.  The  surrounding  hills  were  smooth  and 
well  rounded  and  the  valley  bottom  contained  much 
alluvial  land.  We  passed  through  it  and,  after  dark, 
reached  Sondor,  a tiny  hamlet  inhabited  by  ex- 
tremely suspicious  and  inhospitable  drovers.  In  the 
darkness  Don  Pablo  pleaded  with  the  owners  of 
a well-thatched  hut,  and  told  them  how  ‘'impor- 
tant” we  were.  They  were  unwilling  to  give  us  any 
shelter,  so  we  were  forced  to  pitch  our  tent  in  the 
very  rocky  and  dirty  corral  immediately  in  front  of 
one  of  the  huts,  where  pigs,  dogs,  and  cattle  annoyed 
us  all  night.  If  we  had  arrived  before  dark  we  might 
have  received  a different  welcome.  As  a matter  of 
fact,  the  herdsmen  only  showed  the  customary 
hostility  of  mountaineers  and  wilderness  folk  to 
those  who  do  not  arrive  in  the  daytime,  when  they 
can  be  plainly  seen  and  fully  discussed. 

The  next  morning  we  passed  some  fairly  recent 
lava  flows  and  noted  also  many  curious  rock  forms 
caused  by  wind  and  sand  erosion.  We  had  now  left 
the  belt  of  grazing  lands  and  once  more  come  into 


FLAMINGO  LAKE  89 

the  desert.  At  length  we  reached  the  rim  of  the 
mile-deep  Caraveli  Canyon  and  our  eyes  were  glad- 
dened at  sight  of  the  rich  green  oasis,  a striking  con- 
trast to  the  barren  walls  of  the  canyon.  As  we 
descended  the  long,  winding  road  we  passed  many 
fine  specimens  of  tree  cactus.  At  the  foot  of  the 
steep  descent  we  found  ourselves  separated  from  the 
nearest  settlement  by  a very  wide  river,  which  it 
was  necessary  to  ford.  Neither  of  the  Tejadas  had 
ever  been  here  before  and  its  depths  and  dangers 
were  unknown.  Fortunately  Pablo  found  a forlorn 
individual  living  in  a tiny  hut  on  the  bank,  who  indi- 
cated which  way  lay  safety.  After  an  exciting  two 
hours  we  finally  got  across  to  the  desired  shore. 
Animals  and  men  were  glad  enough  to  leave  the 
high,  arid  desert  and  enter  the  oasis  of  Caraveli  with 
its  luscious,  green  fields  of  alfalfa,  its  shady  fig  trees 
and  tall  eucalyptus.  The  air,  pungent  with  the 
smell  of  rich  vegetation,  seemed  cooler  and  more 
invigorating. 

We  found  at  Caraveli  a modern  British  enterprise, 
the  gold  mine  of  “La  Victoria.”  Mr.  Prain,  the 
Manager,  and  his  associates  at  the  camp  gave  us  a 
cordial  welcome,  and  a wonderful  dinner  which  I 
shall  long  remember.  After  two  months  in  the 
coastal  desert  it  seemed  like  home.  During  the  even- 
ing we  learned  of  the  difficulties  Mr.  Prain  had  had 
in  bringing  his  machinery  across  the  plateau  from 
the  nearest  port.  Our  own  troubles  seemed  as 
nothing.  The  cost  of  transporting  on  muleback 
each  of  the  larger  pieces  of  the  quartz  stamping-mill 
was  equivalent  to  the  price  of  a first-class  pack 


90 


INCA  LAND 


mule.  As  a matter  of  fact,  although  it  is  only  a twc 
days’  journey,  pack  animals’  backs  are  not  built  to 
survive  the  strain  of  carrying  pieces  of  machinery 
weighing  five  hundred  pounds  over  a desert  plateau 
up  to  an  altitude  of  4000  feet.  Mules  brought  the 
machinery  from  the  coast  to  the  brink  of  the  canyon, 
but  no  mule  could  possibly  have  carried  it  down  the 
steep  trail  into  Caraveli.  Accordingly,  a windlass 
had  been  constructed  on  the  edge  of  the  precipice 
and  the  machinery  had  been  lowered,  piece  by  piece, 
by  block  and  tackle.  Such  was  one  of  the  obstacles 
with  which  these  undaunted  engineers  had  had  to 
contend.  Had  the  man  who  designed  the  machinery 
ever  traveled  with  a pack  train,  climbing  up  and 
down  over  these  rocky  stairways  called  mountain 
trails,  I am  sure  that  he  would  have  made  his  cast- 
ings much  smaller. 

It  is  astonishing  how  often  people  who  ship  goods 
to  the  interior  of  South  America  fail  to  realize  that 
no  single  piece  should  be  any  heavier  than  a pack 
animal  can  carry  comfortably  on  one  side.  One  hun- 
dred and  fifty  pounds  ought  to  be  the  extreme  limit 
of  a unit.  Even  a large,  strong  mule  will  last  only  a 
few  days  on  such  trails  as  are  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration  if  the  total  weight  of  his  cargo 
is  over  three  hundred  pounds.  When  a single  piece 
weighs  more  than  two  hundred  pounds  it  has  to  be 
balanced  on  the  back  of  the  animal.  Then  the  load 
rocks,  and  chafes  the  unfortunate  mule,  besides 
causing  great  inconvenience  and  constant  worry  to 
the  muleteers.  As  a matter  of  expediency  it  is  better 
to  have  the  individual  units  weigh  about  seventy- 


MR.  TUCKER  ON  A MOUNTAIN  THE  MAIN  STREET  OF 

TRAIL  NEAR  CARAVELI  CHUQUIBAMBA 


FLAMINGO  LAKE 


91 


five  pounds.  Such  a weight  is  easier  for  the  arrieros 
to  handle  in  the  loading,  unloading,  and  reloading 
that  goes  on  all  day  long,  particularly  if  the  trail 
is  up-and-down,  as  usually  happens  in  the  Andes. 
Furthermore,  one  seventy-five-pound  unit  makes  a 
fair  load  for  a man  or  a llama,  two  are  right  for  a 
burro,  and  three  for  an  average  mule.  Four  can  be 
loaded,  if  necessary,  on  a stout  mule. 

The  hospitable  mining  engineers  urged  us  to  pro- 
long our  stay  at  “ La  Victoria,”  but  we  had  to  hasten 
on.  Leaving  the  pleasant  shade  trees  of  Caraveli,  we 
climbed  the  barren,  desolate  hills  of  coarse  gravel 
and  lava  rock  and  left  the  canyon.  We  were  sur- 
prised to  find  near  the  top  of  the  rise  the  scattered 
foundations  of  fifty  little  circular  or  oval  huts  av- 
eraging eight  feet  in  diameter.  There  was  no  water 
near  here.  Hardly  a green  thing  of  any  sort  was  to 
be  seen  in  the  vicinity,  yet  here  had  once  been  a 
village.  It  seemed  to  belong  to  the  same  period  as 
that  found  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Parina- 
cochas  Basin.  The  road  was  one  of  the  worst  we 
encountered  anywhere,  being  at  times  merely  a 
rough,  rocky  trail  over  and  among  huge  piles  of 
lava  blocks.  Several  of  the  larger  boulders  were 
covered  with  pictographs.  They  represented  a ser- 
pent and  a sun,  besides  men  and  animals. 

Shortly  afterwards  we  descended  to  the  Rio 
Grande  Valley  at  Callanga,  where  we  pitched  our 
camps  among  the  most  extensive  ruins  that  I have 
seen  in  the  coastal  desert.  They  covered  an  area  of 
one  hundred  acres,  the  houses  being  crowded  closely 
together.  It  gave  one  a strange  sensation  to  find 


INCA  LAND 


92 

such  a very  large  metropolis  in  what  is  now  a deso- 
late region.  The  general  appearance  of  Callanga  was 
strikingly  reminiscent  of  some  of  the  large  groups 
of  ruins  in  our  own  Southwest.  Nothing  about  it 
indicated  Inca  origin.  There  were  no  terraces  in  the 
vicinity.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  what  such  a 
large  population  could  have  done  here,  or  how  they 
lived.  The  walls  were  of  compact  cobblestones, 
rough-laid  and  stuccoed  with  adobe  and  sand.  Most 
of  the  stucco  had  come  off.  Some  of  the  houses  had 
seats,  or  small  sleeping-platforms,  built  up  at  one 
end.  Others  contained  two  or  three  small  cells, 
possibly  storerooms,  with  neither  doors  nor  windows. 
We  found  a number  of  burial  cists  — some  square, 
others  rounded  — lined  with  small  cobblestones. 
In  one  house,  at  the  foot  of  “cellar  stairs’’  we 
found  a subterranean  room,  or  tomb.  The  entrance 
to  it  was  covered  with  a single  stone  lintel.  In 
examining  this  tomb  Mr.  Tucker  had  a narrow 
escape  from  being  bitten  by  a boha , a venomous 
snake,  nearly  three  feet  in  length,  with  vicious 
mouth,  long  fangs  like  a rattlesnake,  and  a strik- 
ingly mottled  skin.  At  one  place  there  was  a low 
pyramid  less  than  ten  feet  in  height.  To  its  top  led 
a flight  of  rude  stone  steps. 

Among  the  ruins  we  found  a number  of  broken 
stone  dishes,  rudely  carved  out  of  soft,  highly  po- 
rous, scoriaceous  lava.  The  dishes  must  have  been 
hard  to  keep  clean!  We  also  found  a small  stone 
mortar,  probably  used  for  grinding  paint;  a broken 
stone  war  club;  and  a broken  compact  stone  mortar 
and  pestle  possibly  used  for  grinding  corn.  Two 


FLAMINGO  LAKE 


93 


stones,  a foot  and  a half  long,  roughly  rounded,  with 
a shallow  groove  across  the  middle  of  the  flatter 
sides,  resembled  sinkers  used  by  fishermen  to  hold 
down  large  nets,  although  ten  times  larger  than  any 
I had  ever  seen  used.  Perhaps  they  were  to  tie  down 
roofs  in  a gale.  There  were  a few  potsherds  lying 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  so  weathered  as  to 
have  lost  whatever  decoration  they  once  had.  We 
did  no  excavating.  Callanga  offers  an  interesting 
field  for  archeological  investigation.  Unfortunately, 
we  had  heard  nothing  of  it  previously,  came  upon  it 
unexpectedly,  and  had  but  little  time  to  give  it. 
After  the  first  night  camp  in  the  midst  of  the  dead 
city  we  made  the  discovery  that  although  it  seemed 
to  be  entirely  deserted,  it  was,  as  a matter  of  fact, 
well  populated!  I was  reminded  of  Professor  T.  D. 
Seymour’s  story  of  his  studies  in  the  ruins  of  ancient 
Greece.  We  wondered  what  the  fleas  live  on  ordi- 
narily. 

Our  next  stopping-place  was  the  small  town  of 
Andaray,  whose  thatched  houses  are  built  chiefly 
of  stone  plastered  with  mud.  Near  it  we  encoun- 
tered two  men  with  a mule,  which  they  said  they 
were  taking  into  town  to  sell  and  were  willing  to 
dispose  of  cheaply.  The  Tejadas  could  not  resist 
the  temptation  to  buy  a good  animal  at  a bargain, 
although  the  circumstances  were  suspicious.  Draw- 
ing on  us  for  six  gold  sovereigns,  they  smilingly 
added  the  new  mule  to  the  pack  train;  only  to  dis- 
cover on  reaching  Chuquibamba  that  they  had 
purchased  it  from  thieves.  We  were  able  to  clear 
our  arrieros  of  any  complicity  in  the  theft.  Never- 


94 


INCA  LAND 


theless,  the  owner  of  the  stolen  mule  was  unwilling 
to  pay  anything  for  its  return.  So  they  lost  their 
bargain  and  their  gold.  We  spent  one  night  in 
Chuquibamba,  with  our  friend  Senor  Benavides, 
the  sub-prefect,  and  once  more  took  up  the  well- 
traveled  route  to  Arequipa.  We  left  the  Majes 
Valley  in  the  afternoon  and,  as  before,  spent  the 
night  crossing  the  desert. 

About  three  o’clock  in  the  morning  — after  we  had 
been  jogging  steadily  along  for  about  twelve  hours 
in  the  dark  and  quiet  of  the  night,  the  only  sound 
the  shuffle  of  the  mules’  feet  in  the  sand,  the  only 
sight  an  occasional  crescent-shaped  dune,  dimly 
visible  in  the  starlight  — the  eastern  horizon  began 
to  be  faintly  illumined.  The  moon  had  long  since 
set.  Could  this  be  the  approach  of  dawn?  Sunrise 
was  not  due  for  at  least  two  hours.  In  the  tropics 
there  is  little  twilight  preceding  the  day;  “the  dawn 
comes  up  like  thunder.”  Surely  the  moon  could 
not  be  going  to  rise  again ! What  could  be  the  mean- 
ing of  the  rapidly  brightening  eastern  sky?  While 
we  watched  and  marveled,  the  pure  white  light  grew 
brighter  and  brighter,  until  we  cried  out  in  ecstasy 
as  a dazzling  luminary  rose  majestically  above  the 
horizon.  A splendor,  neither  of  the  sun  nor  of  the 
moon,  shone  upon  us.  It  was  the  morning  star. 
For  sheer  beauty,  “divine,  enchanting  ravishment,” 
Venus  that  day  surpassed  anything  I have  ever 
seen.  In  the  words  of  the  great  Eastern  poet,  who 
had  often  seen  such  a sight  in  the  deserts  of  Asia, 
“the  morning  stars  sang  together  and  all  the  sons 
of  God  shouted  for  joy.” 


CHAPTER  V 


TITICACA 


REQUIPA  is  one  of  the  pleasantest  places  in 


the  world : mountain  air,  bright  sunshine,  warm 
days,  cool  nights,  and  a sparkling  atmosphere  dear  to 
the  hearts  of  star-gazers.  The  city  lies  on  a plateau, 
surrounded  by  mighty  snow-capped  volcanoes,  Cha- 
chani  (20,000  ft.),  El  Misti  (19,000  ft.),  and  Pichu 
Pichu  (18,000  ft.).  Arequipa  has  only  one  night- 
mare — earthquakes.  About  twice  in  a century  the 
spirits  of  the  sleeping  volcanoes  stir,  roll  over,  and 
go  to  sleep  again.  But  they  shake  the  bed!  And 
Arequipa  rests  on  their  bed.  The  possibility  of  a 
** terremoto'1  is  always  present  in  the  subconscious 
mind  of  the  Arequipeno. 

One  evening  I happened  to  be  dining  with  a 
friend  at  the  hospitable  Arequipa  Club.  Suddenly 
the  windows  rattled  violently  and  we  heard  a loud 
explosion ; at  least  that  is  what  it  sounded  like  to  me. 
To  the  members  of  the  club,  however,  it  meant  only 
one  thing  — an  earthquake.  Everybody  rushed  out ; 
the  streets  were  already  crowded  with  hysterical 
people,  crying,  shouting,  and  running  toward  the 
great  open  plaza  in  front  of  the  beautiful  cathedral. 
Here  some  dropped  on  their  knees  in  gratitude  at 
having  escaped  from  falling  walls,  others  prayed  to 
the  god  of  earthquakes  to  spare  their  city.  Yet  no 
walls  had  fallen!  In  the  business  district  a great 


INCA  LAND 


96 

column  of  black  smoke  was  rising.  Gradually  it 
became  known  to  the  panic-stricken  throngs  that 
the  noise  and  the  trembling  had  not  been  due  to  an 
earthquake,  but  to  an  explosion  in  a large  ware- 
house which  had  contained  gasoline,  kerosene,  dyna- 
mite and  giant  powder! 

In  this  city  of  35,000  people,  the  second  largest  of 
Peru,  fires  are  so  very  rare,  not  even  annual,  scarcely 
biennial,  that  there  were  no  fire  engines.  A bucket 
brigade  was  formed  and  tried  to  quench  the  roaring 
furnace  by  dipping  water  from  one  of  the  azequias , or 
canals,  that  run  through  the  streets.  The  fire  con- 
tinued to  belch  forth  dense  masses  of  smoke  and 
flame.  In  any  American  city  such  a blaze  would 
certainly  become  a great  conflagration. 

While  the  fire  was  at  its  height  I went  into  the 
adjoining  building  to  see  whether  any  help  could  be 
rendered.  To  my  utter  amazement  the  surface  of 
the  wall  next  to  the  fiery  furnace  was  not  even  warm. 
Such  is  the  result  of  building  houses  with  massive 
walls  of  stone.  Furthermore,  the  roofs  in  Arequipa 
are  of  tiles;  consequently  no  harm  was  done  by 
sparks.  So,  without  a fire  department,  this  really 
terrible  fire  was  limited  to  one  warehouse!  The  next 
day  the  newspapers  talked  about  the  “dire  neces- 
sity” of  securing  fire  engines.  It  was  difficult  for  me 
to  see  what  good  a fire  engine  could  have  done. 
Nothing  could  have  saved  the  warehouse  itself  once 
the  fire  got  under  way;  and  surely  the  houses  next 
door  would  have  suffered  more  had  they  been 
deluged  with  streams  of  water.  The  facts  are  almost 
incredible  to  an  American.  We  take  it  as  a matter  of 


TITICACA 


97 


course  that  cities  should  have  fires  and  explosions. 
In  Arequipa  everybody  thought  it  was  an  earth- 
quake ! 

A day’s  run  by  an  excellent  railroad  takes  one  to 
Puno,  the  chief  port  of  Lake  Titicaca,  elevation 
12,500  feet.  Puno  boasts  a soldier’s  monument  and 
a new  theater,  really  a “movie  palace.”  There  is  a 
good  harbor,  although  dredging  is  necessary  to  pro- 
vide for  steamers  like  the  Inca . Repairs  to  the  lake 
boats  are  made  on  a marine  — or,  rather,  a lacus- 
trine — railway.  The  bay  of  Puno  grows  quantities 
of  totoras , giant  bulrushes  sometimes  twelve  feet 
long.  Ages  ago  the  lake  dwellers  learned  to  dry  the 
totoras , tie  them  securely  in  long  bundles,  fasten 
the  bundles  together,  turn  up  the  ends,  fix  smaller 
bundles  along  the  sides  as  a free-board,  and  so  con- 
struct a fishing-boat,  or  balsa . Of  course  the  balsas 
eventually  become  water-logged  and  spend  a large 
part  of  their  existence  on  the  shore,  drying  in  the 
sun.  Even  so,  they  are  not  very  buoyant.  I can 
testify  that  it  is  difficult  to  use  them  without  getting 
one’s  shoes  wet.  As  a matter  of  fact  one  should  go 
barefooted,  or  wear  sandals,  as  the  natives  do. 

The  balsas  are  clumsy,  and  difficult  to  paddle. 
The  favorite  method  of  locomotion  is  to  pole  or, 
when  the  wind  favors,  sail.  The  mast  is  an  A-shaped 
contraption,  twelve  feet  high,  made  of  two  light 
poles  tied  together  and  fastened,  one  to  each  side  of 
the  craft,  slightly  forward  of  amidships.  Poles  are 
extremely  scarce  in  this  region  — lumber  has  to  be 
brought  from  Puget  Sound,  6000  miles  away  — so 


INCA  LAND 


98 

nearly  all  the  masts  I saw  were  made  of  small  pieces 
of  wood  spliced  two  or  three  times.  To  the  apex  of 
the  “A”  is  attached  a forked  stick,  over  which  run 
the  halyards.  The  rectangular  “sail”  is  nothing 
more  nor  less  than  a large  mat  made  of  rushes.  A 
short  forestay  fastened  to  the  sides  of  the  “ A”  about 
four  feet  above  the  hull  prevents  the  mast  from 
falling  when  the  sail  is  hoisted.  The  main  halyards 
take  the  place  of  a backstay.  The  balsas  cannot  beat 
to  windward,  but  behave  very  well  in  shallow  water 
with  a favoring  breeze.  When  the  wind  is  contrary 
the  boatmen  must  pole.  They  are  extremely  careful 
not  to  fall  overboard,  for  the  water  in  the  lake  is 
cold,  550  F.,  and  none  of  them  know  how  to  swim. 
Lake  Titicaca  itself  never  freezes  over,  although 
during  the  winter  ice  forms  at  night  on  the  shallow 
bays  and  near  the  shore. 

When  the  Indians  wish  to  go  in  the  shallowest 
waters  they  use  a very  small  balsa  not  over  eight 
feet  long,  barely  capable  of  supporting  the  weight 
of  one  man.  On  the  other  hand,  large  balsas  con- 
structed for  use  in  crossing  the  rough  waters  of  the 
deeper  portions  of  the  lake  are  capable  of  carrying 
a dozen  people  and  their  luggage.  Once  I saw  a 
ploughman  and  his  team  of  oxen  being  ferried  across 
the  lake  on  a bulrush  raft.  To  give  greater  security 
two  balsas  are  sometimes  fastened  together  in  the 
fashion  of  a double  canoe. 

One  of  the  more  highly  speculative  of  the  Bolivian 
writers,  Senor  Posnansky,  of  La  Paz,  believes  that 
gigantic  balsas  were  used  in  bringing  ten-ton  mono- 
liths across  the  lake  to  Tiahuanaco.  This  theory 


ISLAND  OF  KOATI 


TITICACA 


99 


is  based  on  the  assumption  that  Titicaca  was  once 
very  much  higher  than  it  is  now,  a hypothesis  which 
has  not  commended  itself  to  modern  geologists  or 
geographers.  Dr.  Isaiah  Bowman  and  Professor 
Herbert  Gregory,  who  have  studied  its  geology  and 
physiography,  have  not  been  able  to  find  any  direct 
evidence  of  former  high  levels  for  Lake  Titicaca, 
or  of  its  having  been  connected  with  the  ocean. 

Nevertheless,  Senor  Posnansky  believes  that  Lake 
Titicaca  was  once  a salt  sea  which  became  separated 
from  the  ocean  as  the  Andes  rose.  The  fact  that 
the  lake  fishes  are  fresh-water,  rather  than  marine, 
forms  does  not  bother  him.  Senor  Posnansky  pins 
his  faith  to  a small  dried  seahorse  once  given  him 
by  a Titicaca  fisherman.  He  seems  to  forget  that 
dried  specimens  of  marine  life,  including  starfish, 
are  frequently  offered  for  sale  in  the  Andes  by  the 
dealers  in  primitive  medicines  who  may  be  found  in 
almost  every  market-place.  Probably  Senor  Pos- 
nansky’s  seahorse  was  brought  from  the  ocean  by 
some  particularly  enterprising  trader.  Although 
starfish  are  common  enough  in  the  Andes  and  a sea- 
horse has  actually  found  its  resting-place  in  La  Paz, 
this  does  not  alter  the  fact  that  scientific  investiga- 
tors have  never  found  any  strictly  marine  fauna  in 
Lake  Titicaca.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  two  or 
three  kinds  of  edible  fresh-water  fish.  One  of  them 
belongs  to  a species  found  in  the  Rimac  River  near 
Lima.  It  seems  to  me  entirely  possible  that  the 
Incas,  with  their  scorn  of  the  difficulties  of  carrying 
heavy  burdens  over  seemingly  impossible  trails, 
might  have  deliberately  transplanted  the  desirable 


100  INCA  LAND 

fresh- water  fishes  of  the  Rimac  River  to  Lake  Titi- 
caca. 

Polo  de  Ondegardo,  who  lived  in  Cuzco  in  1560, 
says  that  the  Incas  used  to  bring  fresh  fish  from  the 
sea  by  special  runners,  and  that  “they  have  records 
in  their  quipus  of  the  fish  having  been  brought  from 
Tumbez,  a distance  of  more  than  three  hundred 
leagues.”  The  actual  transference  of  water  jars 
containing  the  fish  would  have  offered  no  serious 
obstacle  whatever  to  the  Incas,  provided  the  idea 
happened  to  appeal  to  them  as  desirable.  Yet  I may 
be  as  far  wrong  as  Senor  Posnansky!  At  any  rate, 
the  romantic  stories  of  a gigantic  inland  sea,  vastly 
more  extensive  than  the  present  lake  and  actually 
surrounding  the  ancient  city  of  Tiahuanaco,  must 
be  treated  with  respectful  skepticism. 

Tiahuanaco,  at  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Titicaca, 
in  Bolivia,  is  famous  for  the  remains  of  a pre-Inca 
civilization.  Unique  among  prehistoric  remains  in 
the  highlands  of  Peru  or  Bolivia  are  its  carved  mono- 
lithic images.  Although  they  have  suffered  from 
weathering  and  from  vandalism,  enough  remains  to 
show  that  they  represent  clothed  human  figures. 
The  richly  decorated  girdles  and  long  tunics  are 
carved  in  low  relief  with  an  intricate  pattern.  While 
some  of  the  designs  are  undoubtedly  symbolic  of 
the  rank,  achievements,  or  attributes  of  the  divini- 
ties or  chiefs  here  portrayed,  there  is  nothing  hiero- 
glyphic. The  images  are  stiff  and  show  no  apprecia- 
tion of  the  beauty  of  the  human  form.  Probably  the 
ancient  artists  never  had  an  opportunity  to  study 
the  human  body.  In  Andean  villages,  even  little 


TITICACA 


IOI 


children  do  not  go  naked  as  they  do  among  primitive 
peoples  who  live  in  warm  climates.  The  Highland- 
ers of  Peru  and  Bolivia  are  always  heavily  clothed, 
day  and  night.  Forced  by  their  climate  to  seek  com- 
fort in  the  amount  and  thickness  of  their  apparel, 
they  have  developed  an  excessive  modesty  in  regard 
to  bodily  exposure  which  is  in  striking  contrast  to 
people  who  live  on  the  warm  sands  of  the  South 
Seas.  Inca  sculptors  and  potters  rarely  employed 
the  human  body  as  a motif.  Tiahuanaco  is  pre-Inca, 
yet  even  here  the  images  are  clothed.  They  were  not 
represented  as  clothed  in  order  to  make  easier  the 
work  of  the  sculptor.  His  carving  shows  he  had 
great  skill,  was  observant,  and  had  true  artistic 
feeling.  Apparently  the  taboo  against  “nakedness” 
was  too  much  for  him. 

Among  the  thirty-six  islands  in  Lake  Titicaca, 
some  belong  to  Peru,  others  to  Bolivia.  Two  of  the 
latter,  Titicaca  and  Koati,  were  peculiarly  venerated 
in  Inca  days.  They  are  covered  with  artificial 
terraces,  most  of  which  are  still  used  by  the  Indian 
farmers  of  to-day.  On  both  islands  there  are  ruins  of 
important  Inca  structures.  On  Titicaca  Island  I was 
shown  two  caves,  out  of  which,  say  the  Indians, 
came  the  sun  and  moon  at  their  creation.  These 
caves  are  not  large  enough  for  a man  to  stand  up- 
right, but  to  a people  who  do  not  appreciate  the  size 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  it  requires  no  stretch  of  the 
imagination  to  believe  that  those  bright  disks  came 
forth  from  caves  eight  feet  wide.  The  myth  proba- 
bly originated  with  dwellers  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  lake  who  would  often  see  the  sun  or  moon  rise 


102 


INCA  LAND 


over  this  island.  On  an  ancient  road  that  runs  across 
the  island  my  native  guide  pointed  out  the  “foot- 
prints of  the  sun  and  moon”  — two  curious  effects 
of  erosion  which  bear  a distant  resemblance  to  the 
footprints  of  giants  twenty  or  thirty  feet  tall. 

The  present-day  Indians,  known  as  Aymaras, 
seem  to  be  hard-working  and  fairly  cheerful.  The 
impression  which  Bandelier  gives,  in  his  “ Islands  of 
Titicaca  and  Koati,  ” of  the  degradation  and  surly 
character  of  these  Indians  was  not  apparent  at  the 
time  of  my  short  visit  in  1915.  It  is  quite  possible, 
however,  that  if  I had  to  live  among  the  Indians,  as 
he  did  for  several  months,  digging  up  their  ancient 
places  of  worship,  disturbing  their  superstitious 
prejudices,  and  possibly  upsetting,  in  their  minds, 
the  proper  balance  between  wet  weather  and  dry,  I 
might  have  brought  upon  myself  uncivil  looks  and 
rough,  churlish  treatment  such  as  he  experienced. 
In  judging  the  attitude  of  mind  of  the  natives  of 
Titicaca  one  should  remember  that  they  live  under 
most  trying  conditions  of  climate  and  environment. 
During  several  months  of  the  year  everything  is 
dried  up  and  parched.  The  brilliant  sun  of  the 
tropics,  burning  mercilessly  through  the  rarefied  air, 
causes  the  scant  vegetation  to  wither.  Then  come 
torrential  rains.  I shall  never  forget  my  first  experi- 
ence on  Lake  Titicaca,  when  the  steamer  encount- 
ered a rain  squall.  The  resulting  deluge  actually 
came  through  the  decks.  Needless  to  say,  such 
downpours  tend  to  wash  away  the  soil  which  the 
farmers  have  painfully  gathered  for  field  or  garden. 
The  sun  in  the  daytime  is  extremely  hot,  yet  the 


TITICACA 


103 


difference  in  temperature  between  sun  and  shade  is 
excessive.  Furthermore,  the  winds  at  night  are  very 
damp;  the  cold  is  intensely  penetrating.  Fuel  is 
exceedingly  scarce,  there  is  barely  enough  for  cook- 
ing purposes,  and  none  for  artificial  heat. 

Food  is  hard  to  get.  Few  crops  can  be  grown  at 
12,500  feet.  Some  barley  is  raised,  but  the  soil  is 
lacking  in  nitrogen.  The  principal  crop  is  the  bitter 
white  potato,  which,  after  being  frozen  and  dried, 
becomes  the  insipid  chuho , chief  reliance  of  the 
poorer  families.  The  Inca  system  of  bringing  guano 
from  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  coast  has  long  since 
been  abandoned.  There  is  no  money  to  pay  for 
modern  fertilizers.  Consequently,  crops  are  poor. 
On  Titicaca  Island  I saw  native  women,  who  had 
just  harvested  their  maize,  engaged  in  shucking  and 
drying  ears  of  corn  which  varied  in  length  from  one 
to  three  inches.  To  be  sure  this  miniature  corn  has 
the  advantage  of  maturing  in  sixty  days,  but  good 
soil  and  fertilizers  would  double  its  size  and  pro- 
ductiveness. 

Naturally  these  Indians  always  feel  themselves 
at  the  mercy  of  the  elements.  Either  a long  rainy 
season  or  a drought  may  cause  acute  hunger  and 
extreme  suffering.  Consequently,  one  must  not 
blame  the  Bolivian  or  Peruvian  Highlander  if  he 
frequently  appears  to  be  sullen  and  morose.  On  the 
other  hand,  one  ought  not  to  praise  Samoans  for  be- 
ing happy,  hospitable,  and  light-hearted.  Those  for- 
tunate Polynesians  are  surrounded  by  warm  waters 
in  which  they  can  always  enjoy  a swim,  trees  from 
which  delicious  food  can  always  be  obtained,  and 


104 


INCA  LAND 


cocoanuts  from  which  cooling  drinks  are  secured 
without  cost.  Who  could  not  develop  cheerfulness 
under  such  conditions? 

On  the  small  island,  Koati,  some  of  the  Inca  stone- 
work is  remarkably  good,  and  has  several  unusual 
features,  such  as  the  elaboration  of  the  large,  re- 
entrant, ceremonial  niches  formed  by  step-topped 
arches,  one  within  the  other.  Small  ornamental 
niches  are  used  to  break  the  space  between  these 
recesses  and  the  upper  corners  of  the  whole  rec- 
tangle containing  them.  Also  unusual  are  the  niches 
between  the  doorways,  made  in  the  form  of  an 
elaborate  quadrate  cross.  It  might  seem  at  first 
glance  as  though  this  feature  showed  Spanish  in- 
fluence, since  a Papal  cross  is  created  by  the  shadow 
cast  in  the  intervening  recessed  courses  within  their 
design.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the  cross  nowy  quad- 
rant is  a natural  outcome  of  using  for  ornamental 
purposes  the  step-shaped  design,  both  erect  and 
inverted.  All  over  the  land  of  the  Incas  one  finds 
flights  of  steps  or  terraces  used  repeatedly  for  orna- 
mental or  ceremonial  purposes.  Some  stairs  are 
large  enough  to  be  used  by  man;  others  are  in 
miniature.  Frequently  the  steps  were  cut  into  the 
sacred  boulders  consecrated  to  ancestor  worship. 
It  was  easy  for  an  Inca  architect,  accustomed  to  the 
stairway  motif , to  have  conceived  these  curious 
doorways  on  Koati  and  also  the  cross-like  niches 
between  them,  even  if  he  had  never  seen  any  repre- 
sentation of  a Papal  cross,  or  a cross  nowy  quadrant. 
My  friend,  Mr.  Bancel  La  Farge,  has  also  suggested 
a striking  resemblance  which  the  sedilia-like  niches 


TITICACA 


105 


bear  to  Arabic  or  Moorish  architecture,  as  shown, 
for  instance,  in  the  Court  of  the  Lions  in  the  Alham- 
bra. The  step-topped  arch  is  distinctly  Oriental  in 
form,  yet  flights  of  steps  or  terraces  are  also  thor- 
oughly Incaic. 

The  principal  structure  on  Koati  was  built  around 
three  sides  of  a small  plaza,  constructed  on  an  arti- 
ficial terrace  in  a slight  depression  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  island.  The  fourth  side  is  open  and 
affords  a magnificent  view  of  the  lake  and  the  won- 
derful snow-covered  Cordillera  Real,  200  miles  long 
and  nowhere  less  than  17,000  feet  high.  This  range 
of  lofty  snow-peaks  of  surpassing  beauty  culminates 
in  Mt.  Sorata,  21,520  feet  high.  To  the  worshipers 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  who  came  to  the  sacred  islands 
for  some  of  their  most  elaborate  religious  ceremo- 
nies, the  sight  of  those  heavenly  luminaries,  rising 
over  the  majestic  snow  mountains,  their  glories 
reflected  in  the  shining  waters  of  the  lake,  must  have 
been  a sublime  spectacle.  On  such  occasions  the 
little  plaza  would  indeed  have  been  worth  seeing. 
We  may  imagine  the  gayly  caparisoned  Incas,  their 
faces  lit  up  by  the  colors  of  “rosy-fingered  dawn, 
daughter  of  the  morning,”  their  ceremonial  forma- 
tion sharply  outlined  against  the  high,  decorated 
walls  of  the  buildings  behind  them.  Perhaps  the 
rulers  and  high  priests  had  special  stations  in  front 
of  the  large,  step-topped  niches.  One  may  be  sure 
that  a people  who  were  fond  of  bright  colors,  who 
were  able  to  manufacture  exquisite  textiles,  and  who 
loved  to  decorate  their  garments  with  spangles  and 
disks  of  beaten  gold,  would  have  lost  no  opportunity 


io6 


INCA  LAND 


for  making  the  ancient  ceremonies  truly  resplendent. 

On  the  peninsula  of  Copacabana,  opposite  the 
sacred  islands,  a great  annual  pageant  is  still  staged 
every  August.  Although  at  present  connected  with 
a pious  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  of  the  miraculous 
image  of  the  “Virgin  of  Copacabana,”  this  vivid 
spectacle,  the  most  celebrated  fair  in  all  South 
America,  has  its  origin  in  the  dim  past.  It  comes 
after  the  maize  is  harvested  and  corresponds  to  our 
Thanksgiving  festival.  The  scene  is  laid  in  the  plaza 
in  front  of  a large,  bizarre  church.  During  the  first 
ten  days  in  August  there  are  gathered  here  thou- 
sands of  the  mountain  folk  from  far  and  near.  Every- 
thing dear  to  the  heart  of  the  Aymara  Indian  is 
offered  for  sale,  including  quantities  of  his  favor- 
ite beverages.  Traders,  usually  women,  sit  in  long 
rows  on  blankets  laid  on  the  cobblestone  pavement. 
Some  of  them  are  protected  from  the  sun  by  primi- 
tive umbrellas,  consisting  of  a square  cotton  sheet 
stretched  over  a bamboo  frame.  In  one  row  are  those 
traders  who  sell  parched  and  popped  corn;  in  an- 
other those  who  deal  in  sandals  and  shoes,  the  simple 
gear  of  the  humblest  wayfarer  and  the  elaborately 
decorated  high-laced  boots  affected  by  the  wealthy 
Chola  women  of  La  Paz.  In  another  row  are  the 
dealers  in  Indian  blankets;  still  another  is  devoted 
to  such  trinkets  as  one  might  expect  to  find  in  a 
“ needle-and-thread  ” shop  at  home.  There  are 
stolid  Aymara  peddlers  with  scores  of  bamboo  flutes 
varying  in  size  from  a piccolo  to  a bassoon;  the  hat 
merchants,  with  piles  of  freshly  made  native  felts, 
warranted  to  last  for  at  least  a year;  and  vendors  of 


TITICACA 


107 

i 

aniline  dyes.  The  fabrics  which  have  come  to  us 
from  Inca  times  are  colored  with  beautifully  soft 
vegetable  dyes.  Among  Inca  ruins  one  may  find 
small  stone  mortars,  in  which  the  primitive  pig- 
ments were  ground  and  mixed  with  infinite  care. 
Although  the  modern  Indian  still  prefers  the  product 
of  hand  looms,  he  has  been  quick  to  adopt  the  harsh 
aniline  dyes,  which  are  not  only  easier  to  secure, 
but  produce  more  striking  results. 

As  a citizen  of  Connecticut  it  gave  me  quite  a 
start  to  see,  carelessly  exposed  to  the  weather  on 
the  rough  cobblestones  of  the  plaza,  bright  new 
hardware  from  New  Haven  and  New  Britain  — 
locks,  keys,  spring  scales,  bolts,  screw  eyes,  hooks, 
and  other  “wooden  nutmegs.” 

At  the  tables  of  the  “money-changers,”  just  out- 
side of  the  sacred  enclosure,  are  the  real  money- 
makers, who  give  nothing  for  something.  Thimble- 
riggers  and  three-card-monte-men  do  a brisk  busi- 
ness and  stand  ready  to  fleece  the  guileless  native  or 
the  unsuspecting  foreigner.  The  operators  may  wear 
ragged  ponchos  and  appear  to  be  incapable  of  deep 
designs,  but  they  know  all  the  tricks  of  the  trade! 
The  most  striking  feature  of  the  fair  is  the  presence 
of  various  Aymara  secret  societies,  whose  members, 
wearing  repulsive  masks,  are  clad  in  the  most  extra- 
ordinary costumes  which  can  be  invented  by  primi- 
tive imaginations.  Each  society  has  its  own  uni- 
form, made  up  of  tinsels  and  figured  satins,  tin-foil, 
gold  and  silver  leaf,  gaudy  textiles,  magnificent 
epaulets  bearing  large  golden  stars  on  a background 
of  silver  decorated  with  glittering  gems  of  colored 


io8 


INCA  LAND 


glass;  tinted  “ostrich”  plumes  of  many  colors 
sticking  straight  up  eighteen  inches  above  the  heads 
of  their  wearers,  gaudy  ribbons,  beruffled  bodices, 
puffed  sleeves,  and  slashed  trunks.  Some  of  these 
strange  costumes  are  actually  reminiscent  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  wearers  are  provided  with 
flutes,  whistles,  cymbals,  flageolets,  snare  drums,  and 
rattles,  or  other  noise-makers.  The  result  is  an  inde- 
scribable hubbub;  a garish  human  kaleidoscope,  ac- 
companied by  fiendish  clamor  and  unmusical  noises 
which  fairly  outstrip  a dozen  j^zz  bands.  It  is  bed- 
lam let  loose,  a scene  of  wild  uproar  and  confusion. 

The  members  of  one  group  were  dressed  to  repre- 
sent female  angels,  their  heads  tightly  turbaned  so 
as  to  bear  the  maximum  number  of  tall,  waving,  va- 
riegated plumes.  On  their  backs  were  gaudy  wings 
resembling  the  butterflies  of  children’s  pantomimes. 
Many  wore  colored  goggles.  They  marched  sol- 
emnly around  the  plaza,  playing  on  bamboo  flageo- 
lets, their  plaintive  tunes  drowned  in  the  din  of 
big  bass  drums  and  blatant  trumpets.  In  an  eddy  in 
the  seething  crowd  was  a placid-faced  Aymara,  be- 
decked in  the  most  tawdry  manner  with  gewgaws 
from  Birmingham  or  Manchester,  sedately  playing 
a melancholy  tune  on  a rustic  syrinx  or  Pan’s  pipe, 
charmingly  made  from  little  tubes  of  bamboo  from 
eastern  Bolivia. 

At  the  close  of  the  festival,  on  a Sunday  afternoon, 
the  costumes  disappear  and  there  occurs  a bull- 
baiting. Strong  temporary  barriers  are  erected  at 
the  corners  of  the  plaza;  householders  bar  their 
doors.  A riotous  crowd,  composed  of  hundreds  of 


TITICACA 


109 


pleasure-seekers,  well  fortified  with  Dutch  courage, 
gathers  for  the  fray.  All  are  ready  to  run  helter- 
skelter  in  every  direction  should  the  bull  take  it  into 
his  head  to  charge  toward  them.  It  is  not  a bull- 
fight. There  are  no  picadors , armed  with  lances  to 
prick  the  bull  to  madness;  no  banderilleros , with 
barbed  darts ; no  heroic  matador , ready  with  shining 
blade  to  give  a mad  and  weary  bull  the  coup  de 
grace.  Here  all  is  fun  and  frolic.  To  be  sure,  the  bull 
is  duly  annoyed  by  boastful  boys  or  drunken  Ay- 
maras,  who  prod  him  with  sticks  and  shake  bright 
ponchos  in  his  face  until  he  dashes  after  his  torment- 
ors and  causes  a mighty  scattering  of  some  specta- 
tors, amid  shrieks  of  delight  from  everybody  else. 
When  one  animal  gets  tired,  another  is  brought  on. 
There  is  no  chance  of  a bull  being  wounded  or  seri- 
ously hurt.  At  the  time  of  our  visit  the  only  animal 
who  seemed  at  all  anxious  to  do  real  damage  was  let 
alone.  He  showed  no  disposition  to  charge  at  ran- 
dom into  the  crowds.  The  spectators  surrounded 
the  plaza  so  thickly  that  he  could  not  distinguish 
any  one  particular  enemy  on  whom  to  vent  his  rage. 
He  galloped  madly  after  any  individual  who  crossed 
the  plaza.  Five  or  six  bulls  were  let  loose  during  the 
excitement,  but  no  harm  was  done,  and  every  one 
had  an  uproariously  good  time. 

Such  is  the  spectacle  of  Copacabana,  a mixture 
of  business  and  pleasure,  pagan  and  Christian,  Spain 
and  Titicaca.  Bedlam  is  not  pleasant  to  one’s  ears; 
yet  to  see  the  staid  mountain  herdsmen,  attired  in 
plumes,  petticoats,  epaulets,  and  goggles,  blowing 
mightily  with  puffed-out  lips  on  bamboo  flageolets, 
is  worth  a long  journey. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  VILCANOTA  COUNTRY  AND  THE  PERUVIAN 
HIGHLANDERS 

IN  the  northernmost  part  of  the  Titicaca  Basin  are 
the  grassy  foothills  of  the  Cordillera  Vilcanota, 
where  large  herds  of  alpacas  thrive  on  the  sweet, 
tender  pasturage.  Santa  Rosa  is  the  principal  town. 
Here  wool-buyers  come  to  bid  for  the  clip.  The  high 
prices  which  alpaca  fleece  commands  have  brought 
prosperity.  Excellent  blankets,  renowned  in  south- 
ern Peru  for  their  weight  and  texture,  are  made 
here  on  hand  looms.  Notwithstanding  the  altitude 
— nearly  as  great  as  the  top  of  Pike’s  Peak  — the 
stocky  inhabitants  of  Santa  Rosa  are  hardy,  vig- 
orous, and  energetic.  Ricardo  Charaja,  the  best 
Quichua  assistant  we  ever  had,  came  from  Santa 
Rosa.  Nearly  all  the  citizens  are  of  pure  Indian 
stock. 

They  own  many  fine  llamas.  There  is  abundant 
pasturage  and  the  llamas  are  well  cared  for  by  the 
Indians,  who  become  personally  attached  to  their 
flocks  and  are  loath  to  part  with  any  of  the  indi- 
viduals. Once  I attempted  through  a Cuzco  ac- 
quaintance to  secure  the  skin  and  skeleton  of  a fine 
llama  for  the  Yale  Museum.  My  friend  was  favor- 
ably known  and  spoke  the  Quichua  language  flu- 
ently. He  offered  a good  price  and  obtained  from 
various  llama  owners  promises  to  bring  the  hide  and 


THE  VILCANOTA  COUNTRY 


hi 


bones  of  one  of  their  “camels”  for  shipment;  but 
they  never  did.  Apparently  they  regarded  it  as 
unlucky  to  kill  a llama,  and  none  happened  to  die 
at  the  right  time.  The  llamas  never  show  affection 
for  their  masters,  as  horses  often  do.  On  the  other 
hand  I have  never  seen  a llama  kick  or  bite  at  his 
owner. 

The  llama  was  the  only  beast  of  burden  known  in 
either  North  or  South  America  before  Columbus. 
It  was  found  by  the  Spaniards  in  all  parts  of  Inca 
Land.  Its  small  two-toed  feet,  with  their  rough 
pads,  enable  it  to  walk  easily  on  slopes  too  rough  or 
steep  for  even  a nimble-footed,  mountain-bred  mule. 
It  has  the  reputation  of  being  an  unpleasant  pet, 
due  to  its  ability  to  sneeze  or  spit  for  a considerable 
distance  a small  quantity  of  acrid  saliva.  When  I 
was  in  college  Barnum’s  Circus  came  to  town.  The 
menagerie  included  a dozen  llamas,  whose  super- 
cilious expression,  inoffensive  looks,  and  small  size 
— they  are  only  three  feet  high  at  the  shoulder  — 
tempted  some  little  urchins  to  tease  them.  When 
the  llamas  felt  that  the  time  had  come  for  reprisals, 
their  aim  was  straight  and  the  result  a precipitate 
retreat.  Their  tormentors,  howling  and  rubbing 
their  eyes,  had  to  run  home  and  wash  their  faces. 
Curiously  enough,  in  the  two  years  which  I have 
spent  in  the  Peruvian  highlands  I have  never  seen  a 
llama  so  attack  a single  human  being.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  I was  in  Santa  Rosa  in  1915  some  one 
had  a tame  vicuna  which  was  perfectly  willing  to 
sneeze  straight  at  any  stranger  who  came  within 
twenty  feet  of  it,  even  if  one’s  motive  was  nothing 


1 12 


INCA  LAND 


more  annoying  than  scientific  curiosity.  The  vicuna 
is  the  smallest  American  “ camel,”  yet  its  long, 
slender  neck,  small  head,  long  legs,  and  small  body, 
from  which  hangs  long,  feathery  fleece,  make  it  look 
more  like  an  ostrich  than  a camel. 

In  the  churchyard  of  Santa  Rosa  are  two  or  three 
gnarled  trees  which  have  been  carefully  preserved 
for  centuries  as  objects  of  respect  and  veneration. 
Some  travelers  have  thought  that  14,000  feet  is 
above  the  tree  line,  but  the  presence  of  these  trees 
at  Santa  Rosa  would  seem  to  show  that  the  use  of 
the  words  “tree  line”  is  a misnomer  in  the  Andes. 
Mr.  Cook  believes  that  the  Peruvian  plateau,  with 
the  exception  of  the  coastal  deserts,  was  once  well 
covered  with  forests.  When  man  first  came  into  the 
Andes,  everything  except  rocky  ledges,  snow  fields, 
and  glaciers  was  covered  with  forest  growth.  Al- 
though many  districts  are  now  entirely  treeless,  Mr. 
Cook  found  that  the  conditions  of  light,  heat,  and 
moisture,  even  at  the  highest  elevations,  are  suffi- 
cient to  support  the  growth  of  trees;  also  that  there 
is  ample  fertility  of  soil.  His  theories  are  well  sub- 
stantiated by  several  isolated  tracts  of  forests  which 
I found  growing  alongside  of  glaciers  at  very  high 
elevations.  One  forest  in  particular,  on  the  slopes  of 
Mt.  Soiroccocha,  has  been  accurately  determined 
by  Mr.  Bumstead  to  be  over  15,000  feet  above  sea 
level.  It  is  cut  off  from  the  inhabited  valley  by  rock 
falls  and  precipices,  so  it  has  not  been  available  for 
fuel.  Virgin  forests  are  not  known  to  exist  in  the 
Peruvian  highlands  on  any  lands  which  could  have 
been  cultivated.  A certain  amount  of  natural  re- 


THE  VILCANOTA  COUNTRY 


ii3 


forestation  with  native  trees  is  taking  place  on 
abandoned  agricultural  terraces  in  some  of  the  high 
valleys.  Although  these  trees  belong  to  many  differ- 
ent species  and  families,  Mr.  Cook  found  that  they 
all  have  this  striking  peculiarity  — when  cut  down 
they  sprout  readily  from  the  stumps  and  are  able  to 
survive  repeated  pollarding;  remarkable  evidence  of 
the  fact  that  the  primeval  forests  of  Peru  were  long 
ago  cut  down  for  fuel  or  burned  over  for  agriculture. 

Near  the  Santa  Rosa  trees  is  a tall  bell- tower. 
The  sight  of  a picturesque  belfry  with  four  or  five 
bells  of  different  sizes  hanging  each  in  its  respective 
window  makes  a strong  appeal.  It  is  quite  otherwise 
on  Sunday  mornings  when  these  same  bells,  “out  of 
tune  with  themselves,”  or  actually  cracked,  are  all 
rung  at  the  same  time.  The  resulting  clangor  and 
din  is  unforgettable.  I presume  the  Chinese  would 
say  it  was  intended  to  drive  away  the  devils  — and 
surely  such  noise  must  be  “ thoroughly  uncongen- 
ial even  to  the  most  irreclaimable  devil,”  as  Lord 
Frederick  Hamilton  said  of  the  Canton  practices. 
Church  bells  in  the  United  States  and  England  are 
usually  sweet-toned  and  intended  to  invite  the 
hearer  to  come  to  service,  or  else  they  ring  out  in 
joyous  peals  to  announce  some  festive  occasion. 
There  is  nothing  inviting  or  joyous  about  the  bells 
in  southern  Peru.  Once  in  a while  one  may  hear  a 
bell  of  deep,  sweet  tone,  like  that  of  the  great  bell  in 
Cuzco,  which  is  tolled  when  the  last  sacrament  is 
being  administered  to  a dying  Christian;  but  the 
general  idea  of  bell-ringers  in  this  part  of  the  world 
seems  to  be  to  make  the  greatest  possible  amount 


INCA  LAND 


1 14 

of  racket  and  clamor.  On  popular  saints'  days  this 
is  accompanied  by  firecrackers,  aerial  bombs,  and 
other  noise-making  devices  which  again  remind  one 
of  Chinese  folkways.  Perhaps  it  is  merely  that  fun- 
damental fondness  for  making  a noise  which  is  found 
in  all  healthy  children. 

On  Sunday  afternoon  the  plaza  of  Santa  Rosa  was 
well  filled  with  Quichua  holiday-makers,  many  of 
whom  had  been  imbibing  freely  of  chicha , a mild 
native  brew  usually  made  from  ripe  corn.  The 
crowd  was  remarkably  good-natured  and  given  to  an 
unusual  amount  of  laughter  and  gayety.  For  them 
Sunday  is  truly  a day  of  rest,  recreation,  and  so- 
ciability. On  week  days,  most  of  them,  even  the 
smaller  boys,  are  off  on  the  mountain  pastures, 
watching  the  herds  whose  wool  brings  prosperity 
to  Santa  Rosa.  One  sometimes  finds  the  mountain 
Indians  on  Sunday  afternoon  sodden,  thoroughly 
soaked  with  chicha , and  inclined  to  resent  the  pres- 
ence of  inquisitive  strangers;  not  so  these  good  folk 
of  Santa  Rosa. 

To  be  sure,  the  female  vendors  of  eggs,  potatoes, 
peppers,  and  sundry  native  vegetables,  squatting 
in  two  long  rows  on  the  plaza,  did  not  enjoy  being 
photographed,  but  the  men  and  boys  crowded 
eagerly  forward,  very  much  interested  in  my  endeav- 
ors. Some  of  the  Indian  alcaldes , local  magistrates 
elected  yearly  to  serve  as  the  responsible  officials  for 
villages  or  tribal  precincts,  were  very  helpful  and, 
armed  with  their  large,  silver-mounted  staffs  of 
office,  tried  to  bring  the  shy,  retiring  women  of  the 
market-place  to  stand  in  a frightened,  disgruntled, 


INDIAN  ALCALDES  AT  SANTA  ROSA 


NATIVE  DRUGGISTS  IN  THE  PLAZA  OF  SICUANI 


THE  VILCANOTA  COUNTRY 


H5 

barefooted  group  before  the  camera.  The  women 
were  dressed  in  the  customary  tight  bodices,  heavy 
woolen  skirts,  and  voluminous  petticoats  of  the 
plateau.  Over  their  shoulders  were  pinned  heavy 
woolen  shawls,  woven  on  hand  looms.  On  their 
heads  were  reversible  “pancake”  hats  made  of 
straw,  covered  on  the  wet-weather  side  with  coarse 
woolen  stuff  and  on  the  fair-weather  side  with  tinsel 
and  velveteen.  In  accordance  with  local  custom, 
tassels  and  fringes  hung  down  on  both  sides.  It  is 
said  that  the  first  Inca  ordered  the  dresses  of  each 
village  to  be  different,  so  that  his  officials  might 
know  to  which  tribe  an  Indian  belonged.  It  was 
only  with  great  difficulty  and  by  the  combined 
efforts  of  a good-natured  priest,  the  gobernador  or 
mayor,  and  the  alcaldes  that  a dozen  very  reluctant 
females  were  finally  persuaded  to  face  the  camera. 
The  expression  of  their  faces  was  very  eloquent. 
Some  were  highly  indignant,  others  looked  foolish  or 
supercilious,  two  or  three  were  thoroughly  fright- 
ened, not  knowing  what  evil  might  befall  them  next. 
Not  one  gave  any  evidence  of  enjoying  it  or  taking 
the  matter  as  a good  joke,  although  that  was  the 
attitude  assumed  by  all  their  male  acquaintances. 
In  fact,  some  of  the  men  were  so  anxious  to  have 
their  pictures  taken  that  they  followed  us  about 
and  posed  on  the  edge  of  every  group. 

Men  and  boys  all  wore  knitted  woolen  caps,  with 
ear  flaps,  which  they  seldom  remove  either  day  or 
night.  On  top  of  these  were  large  felt  hats,  turned 
up  in  front  so  as  to  give  a bold  aspect  to  their  husky 
wearers.  Over  their  shoulders  were  heavy  woolen 


ii  6 


INCA  LAND 


ponchos,  decorated  with  bright  stripes.  Their  trou- 
sers end  abruptly  halfway  between  knee  and  ankle, 
a convenient  style  for  herdsmen  who  have  to  walk 
in  the  long,  dewy  grasses  of  the  plateau.  These 
“high-water”  pantaloons  do  not  look  badly  when 
worn  with  sandals,  as  is  the  usual  custom ; but  since 
this  was  Sunday  all  the  well-to-do  men  had  put  on 
European  boots,  which  did  not  come  up  to  the  bot- 
tom of  their  trousers  and  produced  a singular  effect, 
hardly  likely  to  become  fashionable. 

The  prosperity  of  the  town  was  also  shown  by 
corrugated  iron  roofs.  Far  less  picturesque  than 
thatch  or  tile,  they  require  less  attention  and  give 
greater  satisfaction  during  the  rainy  season.  They 
can  also  be  securely  bolted  to  the  rafters.  On  this 
wind-swept  plateau  we  frequently  noticed  that  a 
thatched  roof  was  held  in  place  by  ropes  passed 
over  the  house  and  weights  resting  on  the  roof. 
Sometimes  to  the  peak  of  a gable  are  fastened 
crosses,  tiny  flags,  or  the  skulls  of  animals  — proba- 
bly to  avert  the  Evil  Eye  or  bring  good  luck. 
Horseshoes  do  not  seem  to  be  in  demand.  Horses* 
skulls,  however,  are  deemed  very  efficacious. 

On  the  rim  of  the  Titicaca  Basin  is  La  Raya. 
The  watershed  is  so  level  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  say  whether  any  particular  raindrop  will  even- 
tually find  itself  in  Lake  Titicaca  or  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  The  water  from  a spring  near  the  railroad 
station  of  Araranca  flows  definitely  to  the  north. 
This  spring  may  be  said  to  be  one  of  the  sources  of 
the  Urubamba  River,  an  important  affluent  of  the 
Ucayali  and  also  of  the  Amazon,  but  I never  have 


THE  VILCANOTA  COUNTRY  117 

heard  it  referred  to  as  “ the  source  of  the  Amazon” 
except  by  an  adventurous  lecturer,  Captain  Blank, 
whose  moving  picture  entertainment  bore  the  allur- 
ing title,  “From  the  Source  to  the  Mouth  of  the 
Amazon.”  As  most  of  his  pictures  of  wild  animals 
“in  the  jungle”  looked  as  though  they  were  taken 
in  the  zoological  gardens  at  Para,  and  the  exciting 
tragedies  of  his  canoe  trip  were  actually  staged  near 
a friendly  hacienda  at  Santa  Ana,  less  than  a week’s 
journey  from  Cuzco,  it  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to 
censure  him  for  giving  this  particular  little  spring 
such  a pretentious  title. 

The  Urubamba  River  is  known  by  various  names 
to  the  people  who  live  on  its  banks.  The  upper 
portion  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  Vilcanota,  a 
term  which  applies  to  a lake  as  well  as  to  the  snow- 
covered  peaks  of  the  cordillera  in  this  vicinity. 
The  lower  portion  was  called  by  the  Incas  the 
Uilca  or  the  Uilcamayu. 

Near  the  water-parting  of  La  Raya  I noticed  the 
remains  of  an  interesting  wall  which  may  have 
served  centuries  ago  to  divide  the  Incas  of  Cuzco 
from  the  Collas  or  warlike  tribes  of  the  Titicaca 
Basin.  In  places  the  wall  has  been  kept  in  repair  by 
the  owners  of  grazing  lands,  but  most  of  it  can  be 
but  dimly  traced  across  the  valley  and  up  the  neigh- 
boring slopes  to  the  cliffs  of  the  Cordillera  Vilcanota. 
It  was  built  of  rough  stones.  Near  the  historic  wall 
are  the  ruins  of  ancient  houses,  possibly  once  occu- 
pied by  an  Inca  garrison.  I observed  no  ashlars 
among  the  ruins  nor  any  evidence  of  careful  ma- 
sonry. It  seems  to  me  likely  that  it  was  a hastily 


n8 


INCA  LAND 


thrown-up  fortification  serving  for  a single  military 
campaign,  rather  than  any  permanent  affair  like  the 
Roman  wall  of  North  Britain  or  the  Great  Wall  of 
China.  We  know  from  tradition  that  war  was  fre- 
quently waged  between  the  peoples  of  the  Titicaca 
Basin  and  those  of  the  Urubamba  and  Cuzco  val- 
leys. It  is  possible  that  this  is  a relic  of  one  of  those 
wars. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  much  older  than  the 
Incas.  Montesinos,1  one  of  the  best  early  histori- 
ans, tells  us  of  Titu  Yupanqui,  Pachacuti  VI,  sixty- 
second  of  the  Peruvian  Amautas,  rulers  who  long 
preceded  the  Incas.  Against  Pachacuti  VI  there 
came  (about  800  a.d.)  large  hordes  of  fierce  sol- 
diers from  the  south  and  east,  laying  waste  fields 
and  capturing  cities  and  towns ; evidently  barbarian 
migrations  which  appear  to  have  continued  for  some 
time.  During  these  wars  the  ancient  civilization, 
which  had  been  built  up  with  so  much  care  and  diffi- 

1 Fernando  Montesinos,  an  ecclesiastical  lawyer  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  appears  to  have  gone  to  Peru  in  1629  as  the  follower  of  that 
well-known  viceroy,  the  Count  of  Chinchon,  whose  wife  having 
contracted  malaria  was  cured  by  the  use  of  Peruvian  bark  or  quinine 
and  was  instrumental  in  the  introduction  of  this  medicine  into 
Europe,  a fact  which  has  been  commemorated  in  the  botanical  name 
of  the  genus  cinchona.  Montesinos  was  well  educated  and  appears  to 
have  given  himself  over  entirely  to  historical  research.  He  traveled 
extensively  in  Peru  and  wrote  several  books.  His  history  of  the 
Incas  was  spoiled  by  the  introduction,  in  which,  as  might  have  been 
expected  of  an  orthodox  lawyer,  he  contended  that  Peru  was  peopled 
under  the  leadership  of  Ophir,  the  great-grandson  of  Noah!  Never- 
theless, one  finds  his  work  to  be  of  great  value  and  the  late  Sir 
Clements  Markham,  foremost  of  English  students  of  Peruvian 
archeology,  was  inclined  to  place  considerable  credence  in  his  state- 
ments. His  account  of  pre-Hispanic  Peru  has  recently  been  edited 
for  the  Hakluyt  Society  by  Mr.  Philip  A.  Means  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. 


THE  VILCANOTA  COUNTRY  119 

culty  during  the  preceding  twenty  centuries,  was 
seriously  threatened.  Pachacuti  VI,  more  religious 
than  warlike,  ruler  of  a people  whose  great  achieve- 
ments had  been  agricultural  rather  than  military, 
was  frightened  by  his  soothsayers  and  priests;  they 
told  him  of  many  bad  omens.  Instead  of  inducing 
him  to  follow  a policy  of  military  preparedness,  he 
was  urged  to  make  sacrifices  to  the  deities.  Never- 
theless he  ordered  his  captains  to  fortify  the  strate- 
gic points  and  make  preparations  for  defense.  The 
invaders  may  have  come  from  Argentina.  It  is 
possible  that  they  were  spurred  on  by  hunger  and 
famine  caused  by  the  gradual  exhaustion  of  forested 
areas  and  the  subsequent  spread  of  untillable  grass- 
lands on  the  great  pampas . Montesinos  indicates 
that  many  of  the  people  who  came  up  into  the  high- 
lands at  that  time  were  seeking  arable  lands  for 
their  crops  and  were  “ fleeing  from  a race  of  giants’ ’ 
— possibly  Patagonians  or  Araucanians  — who  had 
expelled  them  from  their  own  lands.  On  their 
journey  they  had  passed  over  plains,  swamps,  and 
jungles.  It  is  obvious  that  a great  readjustment  of 
the  aborigines  was  in  progress.  The  governors  of  the 
districts  through  which  these  hordes  passed  were 
not  able  to  summon  enough  strength  to  resist  them. 
Pachacuti  VI  assembled  the  larger  part  of  his  army 
near  the  pass  of  La  Raya  and  awaited  the  approach 
of  the  enemy.  If  the  accounts  given  in  Montesinos 
are  true,  this  wall  near  La  Raya  may  have  been 
built  about  1100  years  ago,  by  the  chiefs  who  were 
told  to  “fortify  the  strategic  points.” 

Certainly  the  pass  of  La  Raya,  long  the  gateway 


120 


INCA  LAND 


from  the  Titicaca  Basin  to  the  important  cities  and 
towns  of  the  Urubamba  Basin,  was  the  key  to  the 
situation.  It  is  probable  that  Pachacuti  VI  drew  up 
his  army  behind  this  wall.  His  men  were  undoubt- 
edly armed  with  slings,  the  weapon  most  familiar 
to  the  highland  shepherds.  The  invaders,  however, 
carried  bows  and  arrows,  more  effective  arms, 
swifter,  more  difficult  to  see,  less  easy  to  dodge.  As 
Pachacuti  VI  was  carried  over  the  field  of  battle  on  a 
golden  stretcher,  encouraging  his  men,  he  was  killed 
by  an  arrow.  His  army  was  routed.  Montesinos 
states  that  only  five  hundred  escaped.  Leaving  be- 
hind their  wounded,  they  fled  to  “Tampu-tocco,” 
a healthy  place  where  there  was  a cave,  in  which 
they  hid  the  precious  body  of  their  ruler.  Most 
writers  believe  this  to  be  at  Paccaritampu  where 
there  are  caves  under  an  interesting  carved  rock. 
There  is  no  place  in  Peru  to-day  which  still  bears  the 
name  of  Tampu-tocco.  To  try  and  identify  it  with 
some  of  the  ruins  which  do  exist,  and  whose  modern 
names  are  not  found  in  the  early  Spanish  writers, 
has  been  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  my  expedi- 
tions to  Peru,  as  will  be  described  in  subsequent 
chapters. 

Near  the  watershed  of  La  Raya  we  saw  great 
flocks  of  sheep  and  alpacas,  numerous  corrals,  and 
the  thatched-roofed  huts  of  herdsmen.  The  Quichua 
women  are  never  idle.  One  often  sees  them  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  textiles  — shawls,  girdles, 
ponchos,  and  blankets  — on  hand  looms  fastened  to 
stakes  driven  into  the  ground.  When  tending  flocks 
or  walking  along  the  road  they  are  always  winding 


LAYING  DOWN  THE  WARP  FOR  A BLANKET  ; NEAR  THE  PASS 
OF  LA  RAYA 


PLOWING  A POTATO-FIELD  AT  LA  RAYA 


THE  VILCANOTA  COUNTRY 


121 


or  spinning  yarn.  Even  the  men  and  older  children 
are  sometimes  thus  engaged.  The  younger  children, 
used  as  shepherds  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  age  of 
six  or  seven,  are  rarely  expected  to  do  much  except 
watch  their  charges.  Some  of  them  were  accom- 
panied by  long-haired  suncca  shepherd  dogs,  as  large 
as  Airedales,  but  very  cowardly,  given  to  barking 
and  slinking  away.  It  is  claimed  that  the  sunccas , 
as  well  as  two  other  varieties,  were  domesticated  by 
the  Incas.  None  of  them  showed  any  desire  to  make 
the  acquaintance  of  “Checkers,”  my  faithful  Aire- 
dale. Their  masters,  however,  were  always  inter- 
ested to  see  that  “Checkers”  could  understand 
English.  They  had  never  seen  a dog  that  could 
understand  anything  but  Quichua! 

On  the  hillside  near  La  Raya,  Mr.  Cook,  Mr.  Gil- 
bert, and  I visited  a healthy  potato  field  at  an  ele- 
vation of  14,500  feet,  a record  altitude  for  potatoes. 
When  commencing  to  plough  or  spade  a potato  field 
on  the  high  slopes  near  here,  it  is  the  custom  of  the 
Indians  to  mark  it  off  into  squares,  by  “furrows” 
about  fifteen  feet  apart.  The  Quichuas  commence 
their  task  soon  after  daybreak.  Due  to  the  absence 
of  artificial  lighting  and  the  discomfort  of  rising  in 
the  bitter  cold  before  dawn,  their  wives  do  not  pre- 
pare breakfast  before  ten  o’clock,  at  which  time  it 
is  either  brought  from  home  in  covered  earthenware 
vessels  or  cooked  in  the  open  fields  near  where  the 
men  are  working. 

We  came  across  one  energetic  landowner  super- 
vising a score  or  more  of  Indians  who  were  engaged 
in  “ploughing”  a potato  field.  Although  he  was 


122 


INCA  LAND 


dressed  in  European  garb  and  was  evidently  a man 
of  means  and  intelligence,  and  near  the  railroad, 
there  were  no  modern  implements  in  sight.  We 
found  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  Indians  to  use  any 
except  the  implements  of  their  ancestors.  The  pro- 
cess of  “ploughing”  this  field  was  undoubtedly  one 
that  had  been  used  for  centuries,  probably  long 
before  the  Spanish  Conquest.  The  men,  working  in 
unison  and  in  a long  row,  each  armed  with  a primi- 
tive spade  or  “foot  plough,”  to  the  handle  of  which 
footholds  were  lashed,  would,  at  a signal,  leap  for- 
ward with  a shout  and  plunge  their  spades  into  the 
turf.  Facing  each  pair  of  men  was  a girl  or  woman 
whose  duty  it  was  to  turn  the  clods  over  by  hand. 
The  men  had  taken  off  their  ponchos,  so  as  to  se- 
cure greater  freedom  of  action,  but  the  women  were 
fully  clothed  as  usual,  modesty  seeming  to  require 
them  even  to  keep  heavy  shawls  over  their  shoul- 
ders. Although  the  work  was  hard  and  painful,  the 
toil  was  lightened  by  the  joyous  contact  of  com- 
munity activity.  Every  one  worked  with  a will. 
There  appeared  to  be  a keen  desire  among  the 
workers  to  keep  up  with  the  procession.  Those  who 
fell  behind  were  subjected  to  good-natured  teas- 
ing. Community  work  is  sometimes  pleasant,  even 
though  it  appears  to  require  a strong  directing  hand. 
The  “boss”  was  right  there.  Such  practices  would 
never  suit  those  who  love  independence. 

In  the  centuries  of  Inca  domination  there  was 
little  opportunity  for  individual  effort.  Private 
property  was  not  understood.  Everything  belonged 
to  the  government.  The  crops  were  taken  by  the 


THE  VILCANOTA  COUNTRY  123 

priests,  the  Incas  and  the  nobles.  The  people  were 
not  as  unhappy  as  we  should  be.  One  seldom  had  to 
labor  alone.  Everything  was  done  in  common. 
When  it  was  time  to  cultivate  the  fields  or  to  harvest 
the  crops,  the  laborers  were  ordered  by  the  Incas  to 
go  forth  in  huge  family  parties.  They  lessened  the 
hardships  of  farm  labor  by  village  gossip  and  choral 
singing,  interspersed  at  regular  intervals  with  rest 
periods,  in  which  quantities  of  chicha  quenched  the 
thirst  and  cheered  the  mind. 

Habits  of  community  work  are  still  shown  in  the 
Andes.  One  often  sees  a score  or  more  of  Indians 
carrying  huge  bundles  of  sheaves  of  wheat  or  barley. 
I have  found  a dozen  yoke  of  oxen,  each  a few  yards 
from  the  other  in  a parallel  line,  engaged  in  plough- 
ing synchronously  small  portions  of  a large  field. 
Although  the  landlords  frequently  visit  Lima  and 
sometimes  go  to  Paris  and  New  York,  where  they 
purchase  for  their  own  use  the  products  of  modern 
invention,  the  fields  are  still  cultivated  in  the  fashion 
introduced  three  centuries  ago  by  the  conquistador es, 
who  brought  the  first  draft  animals  and  the  primi- 
tive pointed  plough  of  the  ancient  Mediterranean. 

Crops  at  La  Raya  are  not  confined  to  potatoes. 
Another  food  plant,  almost  unknown  to  Europeans, 
even  those  who  live  in  Lima,  is  canihua,  a kind  of 
pigweed.  It  was  being  harvested  at  the  time  of  our 
visit  in  April.  The  threshing  floor  for  canihua  is  a 
large  blanket  laid  on  the  ground.  On  top  of  this  the 
stalks  are  placed  and  the  flail  applied,  the  blanket 
serving  to  prevent  the  small  grayish  seeds  from 
escaping.  The  entire  process  uses  nothing  of  Eu- 


124  INCA  LAND 

ropean  origin  and  has  probably  not  changed  for 
centuries. 

We  noticed  also  quinoa  and  even  barley  growing  at 
an  elevation  of  14,000  feet.  Quinoa  is  another  spe- 
cies of  pigweed.  It  often  attains  a height  of  three 
to  four  feet.  There  are  several  varieties.  The  white- 
seeded  variety,  after  being  boiled,  may  be  fairly  com- 
pared with  oatmeal.  Mr.  Cook  actually  preferred  it 
to  the  Scotch  article,  both  for  taste  and  texture. 
The  seeds  retain  their  form  after  being  cooked  and 
“do  not  appear  so  slimy  as  oatmeal.”  Other  va- 
rieties of  quinoa  are  bitter  and  have  to  be  boiled  sev- 
eral times,  the  water  being  frequently  changed.  The 
growing  quinoa  presents  an  attractive  appearance; 
its  leaves  assume  many  colors. 

As  we  went  down  the  valley  the  evidences  of 
extensive  cultivation,  both  ancient  and  modern, 
steadily  increased.  Great  numbers  of  old  terraces 
were  to  be  seen.  There  were  many  fields  of  wheat, 
some  of  them  growing  high  up  on  the  mountain  side 
in  what  are  called  temporales , where,  owing  to  the 
steep  slope,  there  is  little  effort  at  tillage  or  cultiva- 
tion, the  planter  trusting  to  luck  to  get  some  kind  of 
a crop  in  reward  for  very  little  effort.  On  April  14th, 
just  above  Sicuani,  we  saw  fields  where  habas  beans 
had  been  gathered  and  the  dried  stalks  piled  in 
little  stacks.  At  Occobamba,  or  the  pampa  where 
oca  grows,  we  found  fields  of  that  useful  tuber,  just 
now  ripening.  Near  by  were  little  thatched  shelters, 
erected  for  the  temporary  use  of  night  watchmen 
during  the  harvest  season. 

The  Peruvian  highlanders  whom  we  met  by  the 


THE  VILCANOTA  COUNTRY  125 

roadside  were  different  in  feature,  attitude,  and 
clothing  from  those  of  the  Titicaca  Basin  or  even  of 
Santa  Rosa,  which  is  not  far  away.  They  were 
typical  Quichuas  — peaceful  agriculturists  — usu- 
ally spinning  wool  on  the  little  hand  spindles  which 
have  been  used  in  the  Andes  from  time  immemorial. 
Their  huts  are  built  of  adobe,  the  roofs  thatched 
with  coarse  grass. 

The  Quichuas  are  brown  in  color.  Their  hair  is 
straight  and  black.  Gray  hair  is  seldom  seen.  It  is 
the  custom  among  the  men  in  certain  localities  to 
wear  their  hair  long  and  braided.  Beards  are  sparse 
or  lacking.  Bald  heads  are  very  rare.  Teeth  seem  to 
be  more  enduring  than  with  us.  Throughout  the 
Andes  the  frequency  of  well-preserved  teeth  was 
everywhere  noteworthy  except  on  sugar  plantations, 
where  there  is  opportunity  to  indulge  freely  in  crude 
brown  sugar  nibbled  from  cakes  or  mixed  with 
parched  corn  and  eaten  as  a travel  ration. 

The  Quichua  face  is  broad  and  short.  Its  breadth 
is  nearly  the  same  as  the  Eskimo.  Freckles  are  not 
common  and  appear  to  be  limited  to  face  and  arms, 
in  the  few  cases  in  which  they  were  observed.  On 
the  other  hand,  a large  proportion  of  the  Indians  are 
pock-marked  and  show  the  effects  of  living  in  a 
country  which  is  “free  from  medical  tyranny.” 
There  is  no  compulsory  vaccination. 

One  hardly  ever  sees  a fat  Quichua.  It  is  difficult 
to  tell  whether  this  is  a racial  characteristic  or  due 
rather  to  the  lack  of  fat-producing  foods  in  their  diet. 
Although  the  Peruvian  highlander  has  made  the 
best  use  he  could  of  the  llama,  he  was  never  able  to 


126 


INCA  LAND 


develop  its  slender  legs  and  weak  back  sufficiently 
to  use  it  for  loads  weighing  more  than  eighty  or  a 
hundred  pounds.  Consequently,  for  the  carrying  of 
really  heavy  burdens  he  had  to  depend  on  himself. 
As  a result,  it  is  not  surprising  to  learn  from  Dr. 
Ferris  that  while  his  arms  are  poorly  developed,  his 
shoulders  are  broader,  his  back  muscles  stronger, 
and  the  calves  of  his  legs  larger  and  more  powerful 
than  those  of  almost  any  other  race. 

The  Quichuas  are  fond  of  shaking  hands.  When  a 
visiting  Indian  joins  a group  he  nearly  always  goes 
through  the  gentle  ceremony  with  each  person  in 
turn.  I do  not  know  whether  this  was  introduced  by 
the  Spaniards  or  comes  down  from  prehistoric  times. 
In  any  event,  this  handshaking  in  no  way  resembles 
the  hearty  clasp  familiar  to  undergraduates  at  the 
beginning  of  the  college  year.  As  a matter  of  fact 
the  Quichua  handshake  is  extremely  fishy  and  lacks 
cordiality.  In  testing  the  hand  grip  of  the  Quichuas 
by  a dynamometer  our  surgeons  found  that  the 
muscles  of  the  forearm  were  poorly  developed  in  the 
Quichua  and  the  maximum  grip  was  weak  in  both 
sexes,  the  average  for  the  man  being  only  about  half 
of  that  found  among  American  white  adults  of 
sedentary  habits. 

Dr.  Ales  Hrdlicka  believes  that  the  aboriginal  races 
of  North  and  South  America  were  of  the  same  stock. 
The  wide  differences  in  physiognomy  observable 
among  the  different  tribes  in  North  and  South 
America  are  perhaps  due  to  their  environmental 
history  during  the  past  10,000  or  20,000  years. 
Mr.  Frank  Chapman,  of  the  American  Museum  of 


THE  VILCANOTA  COUNTRY 


127 


Natural  History,  has  pointed  out  the  interesting 
biological  fact  that  animals  and  birds  found  at  sea 
level  in  the  cold  regions  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  while 
not  found  at  sea  level  in  Peru,  do  exist  at  very  high 
altitudes,  where  the  climate  is  similar  to  that  with 
which  they  are  acquainted.  Similarly,  it  is  interest- 
ing to  learn  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  cold,  lofty 
regions  of  southern  Peru,  living  in  towns  and  villages 
at  altitudes  of  from  9000  to  14,000  feet  above  the 
sea,  have  physical  peculiarities  closely  resembling 
those  living  at  sea  level  in  Tierra  del  Fuego,  Alaska, 
and  Labrador.  Dr.  Ferris  says  the  Labrador  Eskimo 
and  the  Quichua  constitute  the  two  “ best-known 
short-stature  races  on  the  American  continent.” 

So  far  as  we  could  learn  by  questions  and  ob- 
servation, about  one  quarter  of  the  Quichuas  are 
childless.  In  families  which  have  children  the  aver- 
age number  is  three  or  four.  Large  families  are  not 
common,  although  we  generally  learned  that  the 
living  children  in  a family  usually  represented  less 
than  half  of  those  which  had  been  born.  Infant 
mortality  is  very  great.  The  proper  feeding  of  chil- 
dren is  not  understood  and  it  is  a marvel  how  any  of 
them  manage  to  grow  up  at  all. 

Coughs  and  bronchial  trouble  are  very  common 
among  the  Indians.  In  fact,  the  most  common  afflic- 
tions of  the  tableland  are  those  of  the  throat  and 
lungs.  Pneumonia  is  the  most  serious  and  most  to 
be  dreaded  of  all  local  diseases.  It  is  really  terrify- 
ing. Due  to  the  rarity  of  the  air  and  relative  scar- 
city of  oxygen,  pneumonia  is  usually  fatal  at  8000 
feet  and  is  uniformly  so  at  11,000  feet.  Patients 


128 


INCA  LAND 


are  frequently  ill  only  twenty-four  hours.  Tubercu- 
losis is  fairly  common,  its  prevalence  undoubtedly 
caused  by  the  living  conditions  practiced  among  the 
highlanders,  who  are  unwilling  to  sleep  in  a room 
which  is  not  tightly  closed  and  protected  against 
any  possible  intrusion  of  fresh  air.  In  the  warmer 
valleys,  where  bodily  comfort  has  led  the  natives  to 
use  huts  of  thatch  and  open  reeds,  instead  of  the 
air-tight  hovels  of  the  cold,  bleak  plateau,  tubercu- 
losis is  seldom  seen.  Of  course,  there  are  no  “boards 
of  health,”  nor  are  the  people  bothered  by  being 
obliged  to  conform  to  any  sanitary  regulations. 
Water  supplies  are  so  often  contaminated  that  the 
people  have  learned  to  avoid  drinking  it  as  far  as 
possible.  Instead,  they  eat  quantities  of  soup. 

In  the  market-place  of  Sicuani,  the  largest  town 
in  the  valley,  and  the  border-line  between  the 
potato-growing  uplands  and  lowland  maize  fields, 
we  attended  the  famous  Sunday  market.  Many 
native  “druggists”  were  present.  Their  stock  usu- 
ally consisted  of  “medicines,”  whose  efficacy  was 
learned  by  the  Incas.  There  were  forty  or  fifty 
kinds  of  simples  and  curiosities,  cure-alls,  and  spe- 
cifics. Fully  half  were  reported  to  me  as  being  “use- 
ful against  fresh  air”  or  the  evil  effects  of  drafts. 
The  “medicines”  included  such  minerals  as  iron  ore 
and  sulphur;  such  vegetables  as  dried  seeds,  roots, 
and  the  leaves  of  plants  domesticated  hundreds  of 
years  ago  by  the  Incas  or  gathered  in  the  tropical 
jungles  of  the  lower  Urubamba  Valley;  and  such 
animals  as  starfish  brought  from  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Some  of  them  were  really  useful  herbs,  while  others 


THE  RUINS  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  VIRACOCHA  AT  RACCHE 


I 


THE  VILCANOTA  COUNTRY  129 

have  only  a psychopathic  effect  on  the  patient. 
Each  medicine  was  in  an  attractive  little  parti- 
colored woolen  bag.  The  bags,  differing  in  design 
and  color,  woven  on  miniature  hand  looms,  were 
arranged  side  by  side  on  the  ground,  the  upper  parts 
turned  over  and  rolled  down  so  as  to  disclose  the 
contents. 

Not  many  miles  below  Sicuani,  at  a place  called 
Racche,  are  the  remarkable  ruins  of  the  so-called 
Temple  of  Viracocha,  described  by  Squier.  At  first 
sight  Racche  looks  as  though  there  were  here  a row 
of  nine  or  ten  lofty  adobe  piers,  forty  or  fifty  feet 
high!  Closer  inspection,  however,  shows  them  all 
to  be  parts  of  the  central  wall  of  a great  temple. 
The  wall  is  pierced  with  large  doors  and  the  spaces 
between  the  doors  are  broken  by  niches,  narrower 
at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom.  There  are  small  holes 
in  the  doorposts  for  bar-holds.  The  base  of  the 
great  wall  is  about  five  feet  thick  and  is  of  stone. 
The  ashlars  are  beautifully  cut  and,  while  not 
rectangular,  are  roughly  squared  and  fitted  together 
with  most  exquisite  care,  so  as  to  insure  their  mak- 
ing a very  firm  foundation.  Their  surface  is  most 
attractive,  but,  strange  to  say,  there  is  unmistak- 
able evidence  that  the  builders  did  not  wish  the 
stonework  to  show.  This  surface  was  at  one  time 
plastered  with  clay,  a very  significant  fact.  The 
builders  wanted  the  wall  to  seem  to  be  built  entirely 
of  adobe,  yet,  had  the  great  clay  wall  rested  on  the 
ground,  floods  and  erosion  might  have  succeeded  in 
undermining  it.  Instead,  it  rests  securely  on  a 
beautifully  built  foundation  of  solid  masonry.  Even 


130 


INCA  LAND 


so,  the  great  wall  does  not  stand  absolutely  true,  but 
leans  slightly  to  the  westward.  The  wall  also  seems 
to  be  less  weathered  on  the  west  side.  Probably  the 
prevailing  or  strongest  wind  is  from  the  east. 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  ruins  is  a round 
column  about  twenty  feet  high  — a very  rare  occur- 
rence in  Inca  architecture.  It  also  is  of  adobe,  on  a 
stone  foundation.  There  is  only  one  column  now 
standing.  In  Squier’s  day  the  remains  of  others  were 
to  be  seen,  but  I could  find  no  evidences  of  them. 
There  was  probably  a double  row  of  these  columns 
to  support  the  stringers  and  tiebeams  of  the  roof. 
Apparently  one  end  of  a tiebeam  rested  on  the  cir- 
cular column  and  the  other  end  was  embedded  in  the 
main  wall.  The  holes  where  the  tiebeams  entered 
the  wall  have  stone  lintels. 

Near  the  ruins  of  the  great  temple  are  those  of 
other  buildings,  also  unique,  so  far  as  I know.  The 
base  of  the  party  wall,  decorated  with  large  niches, 
is  of  cut  ashlars  carefully  laid;  the  middle  course  is 
of  adobe,  while  the  upper  third  is  of  rough,  uncut 
stones.  It  looks  very  odd  now  but  was  originally 
covered  with  fine  clay  or  stucco.  In  several  cases  the 
plastered  walls  are  still  standing,  in  fairly  good  con- 
dition, particularly  where  they  have  been  sheltered 
from  the  weather. 

The  chief  marvel  of  Racche,  however,  is  the  great 
adobe  wall  of  the  temple,  which  is  nearly  fifty  feet 
high.  It  is  slowly  disintegrating,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected. The  wonder  is  that  it  should  have  stood  so 
long  in  a rainy  region  without  any  roof  or  protect- 
ing cover.  It  is  incredible  that  for  at  least  five 


THE  VILCANOTA  COUNTRY  131 

hundred  years  a wall  of  sun-dried  clay  should  have 
been  able  to  defy  severe  rainstorms.  The  lintels, 
made  of  hard-wood  timbers  and  partially  embedded 
in  the  wall,  are  all  gone;  yet  the  adobe  remains.  It 
would  be  very  interesting  to  find  out  whether  the 
water  of  the  springs  near  the  temple  contains  lime. 
If  so  this  might  have  furnished  natural  calcareous 
cement  in  sufficient  quantity  to  give  the  clay  a par- 
ticularly tenacious  quality,  able  to  resist  weathering. 
The  factors  which  have  caused  this  extraordinary 
adobe  wall  to  withstand  the  weather  in  such  an 
exposed  position  for  so  many  centuries,  notwith- 
standing the  heavy  rains  of  each  summer  season 
from  December  to  March,  are  worthy  of  further 
study. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  this  temple  was  devoted 
to  the  worship  of  Viracocha,  a great  deity,  the  Jove 
or  Zeus  of  the  ancient  pantheon.  It  seems  to  me 
more  reasonable  to  suppose  that  a primitive  folk 
constructed  here  a temple  to  the  presiding  divinity 
of  the  place,  the  god  who  gave  them  this  precious 
clay.  The  principal  industry  of  the  neighboring 
village  is  still  the  manufacture  of  pottery.  No  better 
clay  for  ceramic  purposes  has  been  found  in  the 
Andes. 

It  would  have  been  perfectly  natural  for  the  pre- 
historic potters  to  have  desired  to  placate  the  pre- 
siding divinity,  not  so  much  perhaps  out  of  grati- 
tude for  the  clay  as  to  avert  his  displeasure  and  fend 
off  bad  luck  in  baking  pottery.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  best  pottery  of  the  Incas  was  extremely  fine  in 
texture.  Students  of  ceramics  are  well  aware  of  the 


INCA  LAND 


132 

uncertainty  of  the  results  of  baking  clay.  Bad  luck 
seems  to  come  most  unaccountably,  even  when  the 
greatest  pains  are  taken.  Might  it  not  have  been 
possible  that  the  people  who  were  most  concerned 
with  creating  pottery  decided  to  erect  this  temple  to 
insure  success  and  get  as  much  good  luck  as  possible? 
Near  the  ancient  temple  is  a small  modern  church 
with  two  towers.  The  churchyard  appears  to  be  a 
favorite  place  for  baking  pottery.  Possibly  the  mod- 
ern potters  use  the  church  to  pray  for  success  in 
their  baking,  just  as  the  ancient  potters  used  the 
great  temple  of  Viracocha.  The  walls  of  the  church 
are  composed  partly  of  adobe  and  partly  of  cut 
stones  taken  from  the  ruins. 

Not  far  away  is  a fairly  recent  though  prehistoric 
lava  flow.  It  occurs  to  me  that  possibly  this  flow 
destroyed  some  of  the  clay  beds  from  which  the 
ancient  potters  got  their  precious  material.  The 
temple  may  have  been  erected  as  a propitiatory 
offering  to  the  god  of  volcanoes  in  the  hope  that  the 
anger  which  had  caused  him  to  send  the  lava  flow 
might  be  appeased.  It  may  be  that  the  Inca  Vira- 
cocha, an  unusually  gifted  ruler,  was  particularly 
interested  in  ceramics  and  was  responsible  for  build- 
ing the  temple.  If  so,  it  would  be  natural  for  people 
who  are  devoted  to  ancestor  worship  to  have  here 
worshiped  his  memory. 


CO 


n 


Shading  indicates  where  topographic  surveys  were  made. 


f 

f 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  HUATANAY 
HE  valley  of  the  Huatanay  is  one  of  many  val- 


leys tributary  to  the  Urubamba.  It  differs  from 
them  in  having  more  arable  land  located  under  cli- 
matic conditions  favorable  for  the  raising  of  the  food 
crops  of  the  ancient  Peruvians.  Containing  an  area 
estimated  at  less  than  160  square  miles,  it  was  the 
heart  of  the  greatest  empire  that  South  America  has 
ever  seen.  It  is  still  intensively  cultivated,  the  home 
of  a large  percentage  of  the  people  of  this  part  of  Peru. 
The  Huatanay  itself  sometimes  meanders  through 
the  valley  in  a natural  manner,  but  at  other  times  is 
seen  to  be  confined  within  carefully  built  stone  walls 
constructed  by  prehistoric  agriculturists  anxious 
to  save  their  fields  from  floods  and  erosion.  The 
climate  is  temperate.  Extreme  cold  is  unknown. 
Water  freezes  in  the  lowlands  during  the  dry  winter 
season,  in  June  and  July,  and  frost  may  occur  any 
night  in  the  year  above  13,000  feet,  but  in  general 
the  climate  may  be  said  to  be  neither  warm  nor 


This  rich  valley  was  apportioned  by  the  Spanish 
conquerors  to  soldiers  who  were  granted  large 
estates  as  well  as  the  labor  of  the  Indians  living  on 
them.  This  method  still  prevails  and  one  may 
occasionally  meet  on  the  road  wealthy  landholders 
on  their  way  to  and  from  town.  Although  mules 


cold. 


134 


INCA  LAND 


are  essentially  the  most  reliable  saddle  animals  for 
work  in  the  Andes,  these  landholders  usually  prefer 
horses,  which  are  larger  and  faster,  as  well  as  being 
more  gentle  and  better  gaited.  The  gentry  of  the 
Huatanay  Valley  prefer  a deep-seated  saddle,  over 
which  is  laid  a heavy  sheepskin  or  thick  fur  mat. 
The  fashionable  stirrups  are  pyramidal  in  shape, 
made  of  wood  decorated  with  silver  bands.  Owing 
to  the  steepness  of  the  roads,  a crupper  is  considered 
necessary  and  is  usually  decorated  with  a broad, 
embossed  panel,  from  which  hang  little  trappings 
reminiscent  of  medieval  harness.  The  bridle  is 
usually  made  of  carefully  braided  leather,  decorated 
with  silver  and  frequently  furnished  with  an  em- 
bossed leather  eye  shade  or  blinder,  to  indicate  that 
the  horse  is  high-spirited.  This  eye  shade,  which 
may  be  pulled  down  so  as  to  blind  both  eyes  com- 
pletely, is  more  useful  than  a hitching  post  in  per- 
suading the  horse  to  stand  still. 

The  valley  of  the  Huatanay  River  is  divided  into 
three  parts,  the  basins  of  Lucre,  Oropesa,  and  Cuzco. 
The  basaltic  cliffs  near  Oropesa  divide  the  Lucre 
Basin  from  the  Oropesa  Basin.  The  pass  at  Ango- 
stura, or  “the  narrows,”  is  the  natural  gateway  be- 
tween the  Oropesa  Basin  and  the  Cuzco  Basin. 
Each  basin  contains  interesting  ruins.  In  the  Lucre 
Basin  the  most  interesting  are  those  of  Rumiccolca 
and  Piquillacta. 

At  the  extreme  eastern  end  of  the  valley,  on  top 
of  the  pass  which  leads  to  the  Vilcanota  is  an  an- 
cient gateway  called  Rumiccolca  ( Rumi  = “stone”; 
ccolca  = “granary”).  It  is  commonly  supposed 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  HUATANAY  135 

that  this  was  an  Inca  fortress,  intended  to  separate 
the  chiefs  of  Cuzco  from  those  of  Vilcanota.  It  is 
now  locally  referred  to  as  a “fortaleza”  The  major 
part  of  the  wall  is  well  built  of  rough  stones,  laid  in 
clay,  while  the  sides  of  the  gateway  are  faced  with 
carefully  cut  andesite  ashlars  of  an  entirely  differ- 
ent style.  It  is  conceivable  that  some  great  chief- 
tain built  the  rough  wall  in  the  days  when  the  high- 
lands were  split  up  among  many  little  independent 
rulers,  and  that  later  one  of  the  Incas,  no  longer 
needing  any  fortifications  between  the  Huatanay 
Valley  and  the  Vilcanota  Valley,  tore  down  part  of 
the  wall  and  built  a fine  gateway.  The  faces  of  the 
ashlars  are  nicely  finished  except  for  several  rough 
bosses  or  nubbins.  They  were  probably  used  by  the 
ancient  masons  in  order  to  secure  a better  hold  when 
finally  adjusting  the  ashlars  with  small  crowbars. 
It  may  have  been  the  intention  of  the  stone  masons 
to  remove  these  nubbins  after  the  wall  was  com- 
pleted. In  one  of  the  unfinished  structures  at  Machu 
Picchu  I noticed  similar  bosses.  The  name  “ Stone- 
granary’  ’ was  probably  originally  applied  to  a 
neighboring  edifice  now  in  ruins. 

On  the  rocky  hillside  above  Rumiccolca  are  the 
ruins  of  many  ancient  terraces  and  some  buildings. 
Not  far  from  Rumiccolca,  on  the  slopes  of  Mt. 
Piquillacta,  are  the  ruins  of  an  extensive  city,  also 
called  Piquillacta.  A large  number  of  its  houses  have 
extraordinarily  high  walls.  A high  wall  outside  the 
city,  and  running  north  and  south,  was  obviously 
built  to  protect  it  from  enemies  approaching  from 
the  Vilcanota  Valley.  In  the  other  directions  the 


INCA  LAND 


136 

slopes  are  so  steep  as  to  render  a wall  unnecessary. 
The  walls  are  built  of  fragments  of  lava  rock,  with 
which  the  slopes  of  Mt.  Piquillacta  are  covered. 
Cacti  and  thorny  scrub  are  growing  in  the  ruins, 
but  the  volcanic  soil  is  rich  enough  to  attract  the 
attention  of  agriculturists,  who  come  here  from 
neighboring  villages  to  cultivate  their  crops.  The 
slopes  above  the  city  are  still  extensively  cultivated, 
but  without  terraces.  Wheat  and  barley  are  the 
principal  crops. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  difficulty  of  identifying 
places  in  ancient  Peru,  it  is  worth  noting  that  the 
gateway  now  called  Rumiccolca  is  figured  in  Squier’s 
“Peru”  as  “Piquillacta.”  On  the  other  hand,  the 
ruins  of  the  large  city,  “covering  thickly  an  area 
nearly  a square  mile,”  are  called  by  Squier  “the 
great  Inca  town  of  Muyna,”  a name  also  applied  to 
the  little  lake  which  lies  in  the  bottom  of  the  Lucre 
Basin.  As  Squier  came  along  the  road  from  Racche 
he  saw  Mt.  Piquillacta  first,  then  the  gateway,  then 
Lake  Muyna,  then  the  ruins  of  the  city.  In  each 
case  the  name  of  the  most  conspicuous,  harmless, 
natural  phenomenon  seems  to  have  been  applied  to 
ruins  by  those  of  whom  he  inquired.  My  own  ex* 
perience  was  different. 

Dr.  Aguilar,  a distinguished  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cuzco,  who  has  a country  place  in  the 
neighborhood  and  is  very  familiar  with  this  region, 
brought  me  to  this  ancient  city  from  the  other  direc- 
tion. From  him  I learned  that  the  city  ruins  are 
called  Piquillacta,  the  name  which  is  also  applied 
to  the  mountain  which  lies  to  the  eastward  of  the 


LUCRE  BASIN,  LAKE  MUYNA,  AND  THE  CITY  WALL  OF  PIQUILLACTA 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  HUATANAY  137 

ruins  and  rises  1200  feet  above  them.  Dr.  Aguilar 
lives  near  Oropesa.  As  one  comes  from  Oropesa,  Mt. 
Piquillacta  is  a conspicuous  point  and  is  directly  in 
line  with  the  city  ruins.  Consequently,  it  would  be 
natural  for  people  viewing  it  from  this  direction  to 
give  to  the  ruins  the  name  of  the  mountain  rather 
than  that  of  the  lake.  Yet  the  mountain  may  be 
named  for  the  ruins.  Piqui  means  “flea”;  llacta 
means  “town,  city,  country,  district,  or  territory.” 
Was  this  “The  Territory  of  the  Fleas”  or  was  it 
“Flea  Town”?  And  what  was  its  name  in  the  days 
of  the  Incas?  Was  the  old  name  abandoned  because 
it  was  considered  unlucky? 

Whatever  the  reason,  it  is  a most  extraordi- 
nary fact  that  we  have  here  the  evidences  of  a very 
large  town,  possibly  pre-Inca,  long  since  abandoned. 
There  are  scores  of  houses  and  numerous  compounds 
laid  out  in  regular  fashion,  the  streets  crossing  each 
other  at  right  angles,  the  whole  covering  an  area 
considerably  larger  than  the  important  town  of 
Ollantaytambo.  Not  a soul  lives  here.  It  is  true 
that  across  the  Vilcanota  to  the  east  is  a difficult, 
mountainous  country  culminating  in  Mt.  Ausan- 
gate,  the  highest  peak  in  the  department.  Yet 
Piquillacta  is  in  the  midst  of  a populous  region. 
To  the  north  lies  the  thickly  settled  valley  of  Pisac 
and  Yucay;  to  the  south,  the  important  Vilcanota 
Valley  with  dozens  of  villages;  to  the  west  the 
densely  populated  valley  of  the  Huatanay  and 
Cuzco  itself,  the  largest  city  in  the  highlands  of 
Peru.  Thousands  of  people  live  within  a radius  of 
twenty  miles  of  Piquillacta,  and  the  population  is 


INCA  LAND 


138 

on  the  increase.  It  is  perfectly  easy  of  access  and  is 
less  than  a mile  east  of  the  railroad.  Yet  it  is 
“ abandonado  — desierto  — despoblado  ” ! Undoubt- 
edly here  was  once  a large  city  of  great  importance. 
The  reason  for  its  being  abandoned  appears  to  be 
the  absence  of  running  water.  Although  Mt.  Piqui- 
llacta  is  a large  mass,  nearly  five  miles  long  and  two 
miles  wide,  rising  to  a point  of  2000  feet  above  the 
Huatanay  and  Vilcanota  rivers,  it  has  no  streams, 
brooks,  or  springs.  It  is  an  isolated,  extinct  volcano 
surrounded  by  igneous  rocks,  lavas,  andesites,  and 
basalts. 

How  came  it  that  so  large  a city  as  Piquillacta 
could  have  been  built  on  the  slopes  of  a mountain 
which  has  no  running  streams?  Has  the  climate 
changed  so  much  since  those  days?  If  so,  how  is  it 
that  the  surrounding  region  is  still  the  populous  part 
of  southern  Peru?  It  is  inconceivable  that  so  large  a 
city  could  have  been  built  and  occupied  on  a plateau 
four  hundred  feet  above  the  nearest  water  unless 
there  was  some  way  of  providing  it  other  than  the  ar- 
duous one  of  bringing  every  drop  up  the  hill  on  the 
backs  of  men  and  llamas.  If  there  were  no  places 
near  here  better  provided  with  water  than  this  site, 
one  could  understand  that  perhaps  its  inhabitants 
were  obliged  to  depend  entirely  upon  water  carriers. 
On  the  contrary,  within  a radius  of  six  miles  there 
are  half  a dozen  unoccupied  sites  near  running 
streams.  Until  further  studies  can  be  made  of  this 
puzzling  problem  I believe  that  the  answer  lies  in 
the  ruins  of  Rumiccolca,  which  are  usually  thought 
of  as  a fortress. 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  HUATANAY  139 

Squier  says  that  this  “ fortress”  was  “the  south- 
ern limit  of  the  dominions  of  the  first  Inca.”  “The 
fortress  reaches  from  the  mountain,  on  one  side,  to  a 
high,  rocky  eminence  on  the  other.  It  is  popularly 
called  ‘ El  Aqueducto ,’  perhaps  from  some  fancied 
resemblance  to  an  aqueduct  — but  the  name  is  evi- 
dently misapplied.”  Yet  he  admits  that  the  cross- 
section  of  the  wall,  diminishing  as  it  does  “ by  gradu- 
ations or  steps  on  both  sides,”  “might  appear  to 
conflict  with  the  hypothesis  of  its  being  a work  of 
defense  or  fortification”  if  it  occupied  “a  different 
position.”  He  noticed  that  “the  top  of  the  wall  is 
throughout  of  the  same  level ; becomes  less  in  height 
as  it  approaches  the  hills  on  either  hand  and  dimin- 
ishes proportionately  in  thickness”  as  an  aque- 
duct should  do.  Yet,  so  possessed  was  he  by  the 
“fortress”  idea  that  he  rejected  not  only  local 
tradition  as  expressed  in  the  native  name,  but  even 
turned  his  back  on  the  evidence  of  his  own  eyes.  It 
seems  to  me  that  there  is  little  doubt  that  instead  of 
the  ruins  of  Rumiccolca  representing  a fortification, 
we  have  here  the  remains  of  an  ancient  azequia,  or 
aqueduct,  built  by  some  powerful  chieftain  to  sup- 
ply the  people  of  Piquillacta  with  water. 

A study  of  the  topography  of  the  region  shows 
that  the  river  which  rises  southwest  of  the  village 
of  Lucre  and  furnishes  water  power  for  its  modern 
textile  mills  could  have  been  used  to  supply  such 
an  azequia.  The  water,  collected  at  an  elevation  of 
10,700  feet,  could  easily  have  been  brought  six  miles 
along  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Lucre  Basin,  around 
Mt.  Rumiccolca  and  across  the  old  road,  on  this 


140 


INCA  LAND 


aqueduct,  at  an  elevation  of  about  10,600  feet.  This 
would  have  permitted  it  to  flow  through  some  of  the 
streets  of  Piquillacta  and  give  the  ancient  city  an 
adequate  supply  of  water.  The  slopes  of  Rumi- 
ccolca  are  marked  by  many  ancient  terraces.  Their 
upper  limit  corresponds  roughly  with  the  contour 
along  which  such  an  azequia  would  have  had  to  pass. 
There  is,  in  fact,  a distinct  line  on  the  hillside  which 
looks  as  though  an  azequia  had  once  passed  that 
way.  In  the  valley  back  of  Lucre  are  also  faint  indi- 
cations of  old  azequias . There  has  been,  however,  a 
considerable  amount  of  erosion  on  the  hills,  and  if,  as 
seems  likely,  the  water-works  have  been  out  of  or- 
der for  several  centuries,  it  is  not  surprising  that  all 
traces  of  them  have  disappeared  in  places.  I regret 
very  much  that  circumstances  over  which  I had  no 
control  prevented  my  making  a thorough  study  of 
the  possibilities  of  such  a theory.  It  remains  for 
some  fortunate  future  investigator  to  determine 
who  were  the  inhabitants  of  Piquillacta,  how  they 
secured  their  water  supply,  and  why  the  city  was 
abandoned. 

Until  then  I suggest  as  a possible  working  hy- 
pothesis that  we  have  at  Piquillacta  the  remains  of 
a pre-Inca  city;  that  its  chiefs  and  people  cultivated 
the  Lucre  Basin  and  its  tributaries;  that  as  a com- 
munity they  were  a separate  political  entity  from 
the  people  of  Cuzco;  that  the  ruler  of  the  Cuzco 
people,  perhaps  an  Inca,  finally  became  sufficiently 
powerful  to  conquer  the  people  of  the  Lucre  Basin, 
and  removed  the  tribes  which  had  occupied  Piqui- 
llacta to  a distant  part  of  his  domain,  a system  of 


SACSAHUAMAN : DETAIL  OF  LOWER  TERRACE  WALL 


RUINS  OF  THE  AQUEDUCT  OF  RUMICCOLCA 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  HUATANAY  141 

colonization  well  known  in  the  history  of  the  Incas; 
that,  after  the  people  who  had  built  and  lived  in 
Piquillacta  departed,  no  subsequent  dwellers  in  this 
region  cared  to  reoccupy  the  site,  and  its  aque- 
duct fell  into  decay.  It  is  easy  to  believe  that  at  first 
such  a site  would  have  been  considered  unlucky. 
Its  houses,  unfamiliar  and  unfashionable  in  design, 
would  have  been  considered  not  desirable.  Their 
high  walls  might  have  been  used  for  a reconstructed 
city  had  there  been  plenty  of  water  available.  In 
any  case,  the  ruins  of  the  Lucre  Basin  offer  a most 
fascinating  problem. 

In  the  Oropesa  Basin  the  most  important  ruins 
are  those  of  Tipon,  a pleasant,  well-watered  valley 
several  hundred  feet  above  the  village  of  Quispi- 
canchi.  They  include  carefully  constructed  houses 
of  characteristic  Inca  construction,  containing  many 
symmetrically  arranged  niches  with  stone  lintels. 
The  walls  of  most  of  the  houses  are  of  rough  stones 
laid  in  clay.  Tipon  was  probably  the  residence  of 
the  principal  chief  of  the  Oropesa  Basin.  It  com- 
mands a pleasant  view  of  the  village  and  of  the  hills 
to  the  south,  which  to-day  are  covered  with  fields  of 
wheat  and  barley.  At  Tipon  there  is  a nicely  con- 
structed fountain  of  cut  stone.  Some  of  the  terraces 
are  extremely  well  built,  with  roughly  squared 
blocks  fitting  tightly  together.  Access  from  one 
terrace  to  another  was  obtained  by  steps  made  each 
of  a single  bonder  projecting  from  the  face  of  the 
terrace.  Few  better  constructed  terrace  walls  are 
to  be  seen  anywhere.  The  terraces  are  still  culti- 
vated by  the  people  of  Quispicanchi.  No  one  lives 


142 


INCA  LAND 


at  Tipon  now,  although  little  shepherd  boys  and 
goatherds  frequent  the  neighborhood.  It  is  more 
convenient  for  the  agriculturists  to  live  at  the  edge 
of  their  largest  fields,  which  are  in  the  valley 
bottom,  than  to  climb  five  hundred  feet  into  the 
narrow  valley  and  occupy  the  old  buildings.  Mo- 
tives of  security  no  longer  require  a residence  here 
rather  than  in  the  open  plain. 

While  I was  examining  the  ruins  and  digging  up  a 
few  attractive  potsherds  bearing  Inca  designs,  Dr. 
Giesecke,  the  President  of  the  University  of  Cuzco, 
who  had  accompanied  me,  climbed  the  mountain 
above  Tipon  with  Dr.  Aguilar  and  reported  the 
presence  of  a fortification  near  its  summit.  My  stay 
at  Oropesa  was  rendered  most  comfortable  and 
happy  by  the  generous  hospitality  of  Dr.  Aguilar, 
whose  finca  is  between  Quispicanchi  and  Oropesa 
and  commands  a charming  view  of  the  valley. 

From  the  Oropesa  Basin,  one  enters  the  Cuzco 
Basin  through  an  opening  in  the  sandstone  cliffs 
of  Angostura  near  the  modern  town  of  San  Gero- 
nimo.  On  the  slopes  above  the  south  bank  of  the 
Huatanay,  just  beyond  Angostura,  are  the  ruins  of  a 
score  or  more  of  gable-roofed  houses  of  character- 
istic Inca  construction.  The  ancient  buildings  have 
doors,  windows,  and  niches  in  walls  of  small  stones 
laid  in  clay,  the  lintels  having  been  of  wood,  now 
decayed.  When  we  asked  the  name  of  these  ruins 
we  were  told  that  it  was  Saylla,  although  that  is  the 
name  of  a modern  village  three  miles  away,  down  the 
Huatanay,  in  the  Oropesa  Basin.  Like  Piquillacta, 
old  Saylla  has  no  water  supply  at  present.  It  is  not 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  HUATANAY  143 

far  from  a stream  called  the  Kkaira  and  could  easily 
have  been  supplied  with  water  by  an  azequia  less 
than  two  miles  in  length  brought  along  the  11,000 
feet  contour.  It  looks  very  much  like  the  case  of  a 
village  originally  placed  on  the  hills  for  the  sake  of 
comparative  security  and  isolation  and  later  aban- 
doned through  a desire  to  enjoy  the  advantages  of 
living  near  the  great  highway  in  the  bottom  of  the 
valley,  after  the  Incas  had  established  peace  over 
the  highlands.  There  may  be  another  explanation. 

It  appears  from  Mr.  Cook’s  studies  that  the  de- 
forestation of  the  Cuzco  Basin  by  the  hand  of  man, 
and  modern  methods  of  tillage  on  unterraced  slopes, 
have  caused  an  unusual  amount  of  erosion  to  occur. 
Landslides  are  frequent  in  the  rainy  season. 

Opposite  Saylla  is  Mt.  Picol,  whose  twin  peaks  are 
the  most  conspicuous  feature  on  the  north  side  of 
the  basin.  Waste  material  from  its  slopes  is  causing 
the  rapid  growth  of  a great  gravel  fan  north  of  the 
village  of  San  Geronimo.  Professor  Gregory  noticed 
that  the  streams  traversing  the  fan  are  even  now 
engaged  in  burying  ancient  fields  by  “transporting 
gravel  from  the  head  of  the  fan  to  its  lower  margin,” 
and  that  the  lower  end  of  the  Cuzco  Basin,  where  the 
Huatanay,  hemmed  in  between  the  Angostura  Nar- 
rows, cannot  carry  away  the  sediment  as  fast  as  it  is 
brought  down  by  its  tributaries,  is  being  choked  up. 
If  old  Saylla  represents  a fortress  set  here  to  defend 
Cuzco  against  old  Oropesa,  it  might  very  naturally 
have  been  abandoned  when  the  rule  of  the  Incas 
finally  spread  far  over  the  Andes.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  seems  more  likely  that  the  people  who  built 


144 


INCA  LAND 


Saylla  were  farmers  and  that  when  the  lower  Cuzco 
Basin  was  filled  up  by  aggradation,  due  to  increased 
erosion,  they  abandoned  this  site  for  one  nearer  the 
arable  lands.  One  may  imagine  the  dismay  with 
which  the  agricultural  residents  of  these  ancient 
houses  saw  their  beautiful  fields  at  the  bottom  of  the 
hill,  covered  in  a few  days,  or  even  hours,  by  enor- 
mous quantities  of  coarse  gravel  brought  down  from 
the  steep  slopes  of  Picol  after  some  driving  rain- 
storm. It  may  have  been  some  such  catastrophe 
that  led  them  to  take  up  their  residence  elsewhere. 
As  a matter  of  fact  we  do  not  know  when  it  was 
abandoned.  Further  investigation  might  point  to 
its  having  been  deserted  when  the  Spanish  village 
of  San  Geronimo  was  founded.  However,  I believe 
students  of  agriculture  will  agree  with  me  that  de- 
forestation, increased  erosion,  and  aggrading  gravel 
banks  probably  drove  the  folk  out  of  Saylla. 

The  southern  rim  of  the  Cuzco  Basin  is  broken 
by  no  very  striking  peaks,  although  Huanacaurai 
(13,427  ft.),  the  highest  point,  is  connected  in  Inca 
tradition  with  some  of  the  principal  festivals  and 
religious  celebrations.  The  north  side  of  the  Hua- 
tanay  Valley  is  much  more  irregular,  ranging  from 
Ttica  Ttica  pass  (12,000  ft.)  to  Mt.  Pachatucsa 
(I5>915  ft.)»  whose  five  little  peaks  are  frequently 
snow-clad.  There  is  no  permanent  snow  either  here 
or  elsewhere  in  the  Huatanay  Valley. 

The  people  of  the  Cuzco  Basin  are  very  short  of 
fuel.  There  is  no  native  coal.  What  the  railroad 
uses  comes  from  Australia.  Firewood  is  scarce. 
The  ancient  forests  disappeared  long  ago.  The  only 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  HUATANAY  145 

trees  in  sight  are  a few  willows  or  poplars  from 
Europe  and  one  or  two  groves  of  eucalyptus,  also 
from  Australia.  Cuzco  has  been  thought  of  and 
written  of  as  being  above  the  tree  line,  but  such  is 
not  the  case.  The  absence  of  trees  on  the  neighbor- 
ing hills  is  due  entirely  to  the  hand  of  man,  the  long 
occupation,  the  necessities  of  early  agriculturists, 
who  cleared  the  forests  before  the  days  of  intensive 
terrace  agriculture,  and  the  firewood  requirements 
of  a large  population.  The  people  of  Cuzco  do  not 
dream  of  having  enough  fuel  to  make  their  houses 
warm  and  comfortable.  Only  with  difficulty  can 
they  get  enough  for  cooking  purposes.  They  depend 
largely  on  fagots  and  straw  which  are  brought  into 
town  on  the  backs  of  men  and  animals. 

In  the  fields  of  stubble  left  from  the  wheat  and 
barley  harvest  we  saw  many  sheep  feeding.  They 
were  thin  and  long-legged  and  many  of  the  rams  had 
four  horns,  apparently  due  to  centuries  of  inbreed- 
ing and  the  failure  to  improve  the  original  stock  by 
the  introduction  of  new  and  superior  strains. 

When  one  looks  at  the  great  amount  of  arable 
slopes  on  most  of  the  hills  of  the  Cuzco  Basin  and 
the  unusually  extensive  flat  land  near  the  Huatanay, 
one  readily  understands  why  the  heart  of  Inca  Land 
witnessed  a concentration  of  population  very  un- 
usual in  the  Andes.  Most  of  the  important  ruins 
are  in  the  northwest  quadrant  of  the  basin  either 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Cuzco  itself  or  on  the 
11 pampas ” north  of  the  city.  The  reason  is  that 
the  arable  lands  where  most  extensive  potato  culti- 
vation could  be  carried  out  are  nearly  all  in  this 


INCA  LAND 


146 

quadrant.  In  the  midst  of  this  potato  country,  at 
the  foot  of  the  pass  that  leads  directly  to  Pisac  and 
Paucartambo,  is  a picturesque  ruin  which  bears  the 
native  name  of  Pucara. 

Pucara  is  the  Quichua  word  for  fortress  and  it 
needs  but  one  glance  at  the  little  hilltop  crowned 
with  a rectangular  fortification  to  realize  that  the 
term  is  justified.  The  walls  are  beautifully  made  of 
irregular  blocks  closely  fitted  together.  Advantage 
was  taken  of  small  cliffs  on  two  sides  of  the  hill  to 
strengthen  the  fortifications.  We  noticed  openings 
or  drains  which  had  been  cut  in  the  wall  by  the 
original  builders  in  order  to  prevent  the  accumula- 
tion of  moisture  on  the  terraced  floor  of  the  enclosed 
area,  which  is  several  feet  above  that  of  the  sloping 
field  outside.  Similar  conduits  may  be  seen  in  many 
of  the  old  walls  in  the  city  of  Cuzco.  Apparently,  the 
ancient  folk  fully  appreciated  the  importance  of 
good  drainage  and  took  pains  to  secure  it.  At 
present  Pucara  is  occupied  by  llama  herdsmen  and 
drovers,  who  find  the  enclosure  a very  convenient 
corral.  Probably  Pucara  was  built  by  the  chief  of  a 
tribe  of  prehistoric  herdsmen  who  raised  root  crops 
and  kept  their  flocks  of  llamas  and  alpacas  on  the 
neighboring  grassy  slopes. 

A short  distance  up  the  stream  of  the  Lkalla 
Chaca,  above  Pucara,  is  a warm  mineral  spring. 
Around  it  is  a fountain  of  cut  stone.  Near  by  are  the 
ruins  of  a beautiful  terrace,  on  top  of  which  is  a fine 
wall  containing  four  large,  ceremonial  niches,  level 
with  the  ground  and  about  six  feet  high.  The  place 
is  now  called  Tampu  Machai.  Polo  de  Ondegardo, 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  HUATANAY  147 

who  lived  in  Cuzco  in  1560,  while  many  of  the  royal 
family  of  the  Incas  were  still  alive,  gives  a list  of  the 
sacred  or  holy  places  which  were  venerated  by  all 
the  Indians  in  those  days.  Among  these  he  mentions 
that  of  Timpucpuquio,  the  “hot  springs”  near 
Tambo  Machai,  “called  so  from  the  manner  in 
which  the  water  boils  up.”  The  next  huaca , or  holy 
place,  he  mentions  is  Tambo  Machai  itself,  “a 
house  of  the  Inca  Yupanqui,  where  he  was  enter- 
tained when  he  went  to  be  married.  It  was  placed  on 
a hill  near  the  road  over  the  Andes.  They  sacrifice 
everything  here  except  children.” 

The  stonework  of  the  ruins  here  is  so  excellent 
in  character,  the  ashlars  being  very  carefully  fitted 
together,  one  may  fairly  assume  a religious  origin 
for  the  place.  The  Quichua  word  macchini  means 
“to  wash”  or  “to  rinse  a large  narrow-mouthed 
pitcher.”  It  may  be  that  at  Tampu  Machai  cere- 
monial purification  of  utensils  devoted  to  royal  or 
priestly  uses  was  carried  on.  It  is  possible  that  this 
is  the  place  where,  according  to  Molina,  all  the 
youths  of  Cuzco  who  had  been  armed  as  knights  in 
the  great  November  festival  came  on  the  21st  day 
of  the  month  to  bathe  and  change  their  clothes. 
Afterwards  they  returned  to  the  city  to  be  lectured 
by  their  relatives.  “Each  relation  that  offered  a 
sacrifice  flogged  a youth  and  delivered  a discourse  to 
him,  exhorting  him  to  be  valiant  and  never  to  be  a 
traitor  to  the  Sun  and  the  Inca,  but  to  imitate  the 
bravery  and  prowess  of  his  ancestors.” 

Tampu  Machai  is  located  on  a little  bluff  above 
the  Lkalla  Chaca,  a small  stream  which  finally  joins 


148 


INCA  LAND 


the  Huatanay  near  the  town  of  San  Sebastian. 
Before  it  reaches  the  Huatanay,  the  Lkalla  Chaca 
joins  the  Cachimayo,  famous  as  being  so  highly 
impregnated  with  salt  as  to  have  caused  the  rise  of 
extensive  salt  works.  In  fact,  the  Pizarros  named 
the  place  Las  Salinas , or  “the  Salt  Pits,”  on  account 
of  the  salt  pans  with  which,  by  a careful  system  of 
terracing,  the  natives  had  filled  the  Cachimayo 
Valley.  Prescott  describes  the  great  battle  which 
took  place  here  on  April  26,  1539,  between  the 
forces  of  Pizarro  and  Almagro,  the  two  leaders  who 
had  united  for  the  original  conquest  of  Peru,  but 
quarreled  over  the  division  of  the  territory.  Near 
the  salt  pans  are  many  Inca  walls  and  the  ruins  of 
structures,  with  niches,  called  Rumihuasi,  or  “Stone 
House.”  The  presence  of  salt  in  many  of  the  springs 
of  the  Huatanay  Valley  was  a great  source  of  annoy- 
ance to  our  topographic  engineers,  who  were  fre- 
quently obliged  to  camp  in  districts  where  the  only 
water  available  was  so  saline  as  to  spoil  it  for  drink- 
ing purposes  and  ruin  the  tea. 

The  Cuzco  Basin  was  undoubtedly  once  the  site 
of  a lake,  “an  ancient  water-body  whose  surface,” 
says  Professor  Gregory,  “lay  well  above  the  present 
site  of  San  Sebastian  and  San  Geronimo.”  This 
lake  is  believed  to  have  reached  its  maximum  ex- 
pansion in  early  Pleistocene  times.  Its  rich  silts, 
so  well  adapted  for  raising  maize,  habas  beans,  and 
quinoa , have  always  attracted  farmers  and  are  still 
intensively  cultivated.  It  has  been  named  “Lake 
Morkill”  in  honor  of  that  loyal  friend  of  scientific 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  HUATANAY  149 


research  in  Peru,  William  L.  Morkill,  Esq.,  without 
whose  untiring  aid  we  could  never  have  brought  our 
Peruvian  explorations  as  far  along  as  we  did.  In 
pre-glacial  times  Lake  Morkill  fluctuated  in  volume. 
From  time  to  time  parts  of  the  shore  were  exposed 
long  enough  to  enable  plants  to  send  their  roots  into 
the  fine  materials  and  the  sun  to  bake  and  crack 
the  muds.  Mastodons  grazed  on  its  banks.  “Lake 
Morkill  probably  existed  during  all  or  nearly  all  of 
the  glacial  epoch.”  Its  drainage  was  finally  accom- 
plished by  the  Huatanay  cutting  down  the  sand- 
stone hills,  near  Saylla,  and  developing  the  Ango- 
stura gorge. 

In  the  banks  of  the  Huatanay,  a short  distance 
below  the  city  of  Cuzco,  the  stratified  beds  of  the 
vanished  Lake  Morkill  to-day  contain  many  fossil 
shells.  Above  these  are  gravels  brought  down  by 
the  floods  and  landslides  of  more  modern  times,  in 
which  may  be  found  potsherds  and  bones.  One  of 
the  chief  affluents  of  the  Huatanay  is  the  Chunchu- 
llumayo,  which  cuts  off  the  southernmost  third  of 
Cuzco  from  the  center  of  the  city.  Its  banks  are 
terraced  and  are  still  used  for  gardens  and  food 
crops.  Here  the  hospitable  Canadian  missionaries 
have  their  pleasant  station,  a veritable  oasis  of 
Anglo-Saxon  cleanliness. 

On  a July  morning  in  1911,  while  strolling  up  the 
Ayahuaycco  quebrada , an  affluent  of  the  Chun- 
chullumayo,  in  company  with  Professor  Foote  and 
Surgeon  Erving,  my  interest  was  aroused  by  the 
sight  of  several  bones  and  potsherds  exposed  by 
recent  erosion  in  the  stratified  gravel  banks  of  the 


150 


INCA  LAND 


little  gulch.  Further  examination  showed  that  re- 
cent erosion  had  also  cut  through  an  ancient  ash 
heap.  On  the  side  toward  Cuzco  I discovered  a sec- 
tion of  stone  wall,  built  of  roughly  finished  stones 
more  or  less  carefully  fitted  together,  which  at  first 
sight  appeared  to  have  been  built  to  prevent  further 
washing  away  of  that  side  of  the  gulch.  Yet  above 
the  wall  and  flush  with  its  surface  the  bank  appeared 
to  consist  of  stratified  gravel,  indicating  that  the  wall 
antedated  the  gravel  deposits.  Fifty  feet  farther  up 
the  quebrada  another  portion  of  wall  appeared  under 
the  gravel  bank.  On  top  of  the  bank  was  a culti- 
vated field ! Half  an  hour’s  digging  in  the  compact 
gravel  showed  that  there  was  more  wall  underneath 
the  field.  Later  investigation  by  Dr.  Bowman 
showed  that  the  wall  was  about  three  feet  thick  and 
nine  feet  in  height,  carefully  faced  on  both  sides 
with  roughly  cut  stone  and  filled  in  with  rubble,  a 
type  of  stonework  not  uncommon  in  the  founda- 
tions of  some  of  the  older  buildings  in  the  western 
part  of  the  city  of  Cuzco. 

Even  at  first  sight  it  was  obvious  that  this  wall, 
built  by  man,  was  completely  covered  to  a depth 
of  six  or  eight  feet  by  a compact  water-laid  gravel 
bank.  This  was  sufficiently  difficult  to  understand, 
yet  a few  days  later,  while  endeavoring  to  solve  the 
puzzle,  I found  something  even  more  exciting.  Half 
a mile  farther  up  the  gulch,  the  road,  newly  cut,  ran 
close  to  the  compact,  perpendicular  gravel  bank. 
About  five  feet  above  the  road  I saw  what  looked 
like  one  of  the  small  rocks  which  are  freely  inter- 
spersed throughout  the  gravels  here.  Closer  exami- 


HUATANAY  VALLEY,  CUZCO,  AND  THE  AYAHUAYCCO  QUEBRADA 


G 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  HUATANAY  151 

nation  showed  it  to  be  the  end  of  a human  femur. 
Apparently  it  formed  an  integral  part  of  the  gravel 
bank,  which  rose  almost  perpendicularly  for  seventy 
or  eighty  feet  above  it.  Impressed  by  the  possibili- 
ties in  case  it  should  turn  out  to  be  true  that  here, 
in  the  heart  of  Inca  Land,  a human  bone  had  been 
buried  under  seventy-five  feet  of  gravel,  I refrained 
from  disturbing  it  until  I could  get  Dr.  Bowman  and 
Professor  Foote,  the  geologist  and  the  naturalist  of 
the  19 1 1 Expedition,  to  come  with  me  to  the  Aya- 
huaycco  quebrada.  We  excavated  the  femur  and 
found  behind  it  fragments  of  a number  of  other 
bones.  They  were  excessively  fragile.  The  femur 
was  unable  to  support  more  than  four  inches  of  its 
own  weight  and  broke  off  after  the  gravel  had  been 
partly  removed.  Although  the  gravel  itself  was 
somewhat  damp  the  bones  were  dry  and  powdery, 
ashy  gray  in  color.  The  bones  were  carried  to  the 
Hotel  Central,  where  they  were  carefully  photo- 
graphed, soaked  in  melted  vaseline,  packed  in 
cotton  batting,  and  eventually  brought  to  New 
Haven.  Here  they  were  examined  by  Dr.  George  F. 
Eaton,  Curator  of  Osteology  in  the  Peabody  Mu- 
seum. In  the  meantime  Dr.  Bowman  had  become 
convinced  that  the  compact  gravels  of  Ayahuaycco 
were  of  glacial  origin. 

When  Dr.  Eaton  first  examined  the  bone  frag- 
ments he  was  surprised  to  find  among  them  the  bone 
of  a horse.  Unfortunately  a careful  examination  of 
the  photographs  taken  in  Cuzco  of  all  the  fragments 
which  were  excavated  by  us  on  July  nth  failed  to 
reveal  this  particular  bone.  Dr.  Bowman,  upon 


INCA  LAND 


*5* 

being  questioned,  said  that  he  had  dug  out  one  or 
two  more  bones  in  the  cliff  adjoining  our  excavation 
of  July  nth  and  had  added  these  to  the  original  lot. 
Presumably  this  horse  bone  was  one  which  he  had 
added  when  the  bones  were  packed.  It  did  not 
worry  him,  however,  and  so  sure  was  he  of  his  in- 
terpretation of  the  gravel  beds  that  he  declared  he 
did  not  care  if  we  had  found  the  bone  of  a Perch- 
eron  stallion,  he  was  sure  that  the  age  of  the  verte- 
brate remains  might  be  “provisionally  estimated  at 
20,000  to  40,000  years,”  until  further  studies  could 
be  made  of  the  geology  of  the  surrounding  territory. 
In  an  article  on  the  buried  wall,  Dr.  Bowman  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  “the  wall  is  pre-Inca,  that  its 
relations  to  alluvial  deposits  which  cover  it  indicate 
its  erection  before  the  alluvial  slope  in  which  it  lies 
buried  was  formed,  and  that  it  represents  the  earli- 
est type  of  architecture  at  present  known  in  the 
Cuzco  basin.” 

Dr.  Eaton’s  study  of  the  bones  brought  out  the 
fact  that  eight  of  them  were  fragments  of  human 
bones  representing  at  least  three  individuals,  four 
were  fragments  of  llama  bones,  one  of  the  bone  of  a 
dog,  and  three  were  “bovine  remains.”  The  human 
remains  agreed  “in  all  essential  respects”  with  the 
bones  of  modern  Quichuas.  Llama  and  dog  might 
all  have  belonged  to  Inca,  or  even  more  recent  times, 
but  the  bovine  remains  presented  considerable  diffi- 
culty. The  three  fragments  were  from  bones  which 
“are  among  the  least  characteristic  parts  of  the 
skeleton.”  That  which  was  of  greatest  interest  was 
the  fragment  of  a first  rib,  resembling  the  first  rib  of 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  HUATANAY  153 

the  extinct  bison.  Since  this  fragmentary  bovine 
rib  was  of  a form  apparently  characteristic  of  bisons 
and  not  seen  in  the  domestic  cattle  of  the  United 
States,  Dr.  Eaton  felt  that  it  could  not  be  denied 
“that  the  material  examined  suggests  the  possi- 
bility that  some  species  of  bison  is  here  represented, 
yet  it  would  hardly  be  in  accordance  with  conserva- 
tive methods  to  differentiate  bison  from  domestic 
cattle  solely  by  characters  obtained  from  a study  of 
the  first  ribs  of  a small  number  of  individuals.”  Al- 
though staunchly  supporting  his  theory  of  the  age 
of  the  vertebrate  remains,  Dr.  Bowman  in  his  re- 
port on  their  geological  relations  admitted  that  the 
weakness  of  his  case  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  bovine 
remains  were  not  sharply  differentiated  from  the 
bones  of  modern  cattle,  and  also  in  the  possibility 
that  “the  bluff  in  which  the  bones  were  found  may 
be  faced  by  younger  gravel  and  that  the  bones  were 
found  in  a gravel  veneer  deposited  during  later 
periods  of  partial  valley  filling,  . . . although  it  still 
seems  very  unlikely.” 

Reports  of  glacial  man  in  America  have  come  from 
places  as  widely  separated  as  California  and  Argen- 
tina. Careful  investigation,  however,  has  always 
thrown  doubt  on  any  great  age  being  certainly 
attributable  to  any  human  remains.  In  view  of  the 
fragmentary  character  of  the  skeletal  evidence,  the 
fact  that  no  proof  of  great  antiquity  could  be  drawn 
from  the  characters  of  the  human  skeletal  parts,  and 
the  suggestion  made  by  Dr.  Bowman  of  the  possi- 
bility that  the  gravels  which  contained  the  bones 
might  be  of  a later  origin  than  he  thought,  we  deter- 


154 


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mined  to  make  further  and  more  complete  investi- 
gations in  1912.  It  was  most  desirable  to  clear  up 
all  doubts  and  dissolve  all  skepticism.  I felt,  per- 
haps mistakenly,  that  while  a further  study  of  the 
geology  of  the  Cuzco  Basin  undoubtedly  might  lead 
Dr.  Bowman  to  reverse  his  opinion,  as  was  expected 
by  some  geologists,  if  it  should  lead  him  to  confirm 
his  original  conclusions  the  same  skeptics  would  be 
likely  to  continue  their  skepticism  and  say  he  was 
trying  to  bolster  up  his  own  previous  opinions. 
Accordingly,  I believed  it  preferable  to  take  another 
geologist,  whose  independent  testimony  would  give 
great  weight  to  those  conclusions  should  he  find 
them  confirmed  by  an  exhaustive  geological  study 
of  the  Huatanay  Valley.  I asked  Dr.  Bowman’s 
colleague,  Professor  Gregory,  to  make  the  necessary 
studies.  At  his  request  a very  careful  map  of  the 
Huatanay  Valley  was  prepared  under  the  direction 
of  Chief  Topographer  Albert  H.  Bumstead.  Dr. 
Eaton,  who  had  had  no  opportunity  of  seeing  Peru, 
was  invited  to  accompany  us  and  make  a study  of 
the  bones  of  modern  Peruvian  cattle  as  well  as  of  any 
other  skeletal  remains  which  might  be  found. 

Furthermore,  it  seemed  important  to  me  to  dig 
a tunnel  into  the  Ayahuaycco  hillside  at  the  exact 
point  from  which  we  took  the  bones  in  1911.  So  I 
asked  Mr.  K.  C.  Heald,  whose  engineering  training 
had  been  in  Colorado,  to  superintend  it.  Mr.  Heald 
dug  a tunnel  eleven  feet  long,  with  a cross-section 
four  and  a half  by  three  feet,  into  the  solid  mass  of 
gravel.  He  expected  to  have  to  use  timbering,  but  so 
firmly  packed  was  the  gravel  that  this  was  not  neces- 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  HUATANAY  155 

sary.  No  bones  or  artifacts  were  found  — nothing 
but  coarse  gravel,  uniform  in  texture  and  containing 
no  unmistakable  evidences  of  stratification.  Appar- 
ently the  bones  had  been  in  a land  slip  on  the  edge 
of  an  older,  compact  gravel  mass. 

In  his  studies  of  the  Cuzco  Basin  Professor  Greg- 
ory came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Ayahuaycco 
gravel  banks  might  have  been  repeatedly  buried 
and  reexcavated  many  times  during  the  past  few 
centuries.  He  found  evidence  indicating  periodic 
destruction  and  rebuilding  of  some  gravel  terraces, 
“even  within  the  past  one  hundred  years.”  Accord- 
ingly there  was  no  longer  any  necessity  to  ascribe 
great  antiquity  to  the  bones  or  the  wall  which  we 
found  in  the  Ayahuaycco  quebrada.  Although  the 
“Cuzco  gravels  are  believed  to  have  reached  their 
greatest  extent  and  thickness  in  late  Pleistocene 
times,”  more  recent  deposits  have,  however,  been 
superimposed  on  top  and  alongside  of  them.  “Sur- 
face wash  from  the  bordering  slopes,  controlled  in 
amount  and  character  by  climatic  changes,  has 
probably  been  accumulating  continuously  since 
glacial  times,  and  has  greatly  increased  since  human 
occupation  began.”  “Geologic  data  do  not  require 
more  than  a few  hundreds  of  years  as  the  age  of  the 
human  remains  found  in  the  Cuzco  gravels.” 

But  how  about  the  “bison”?  Soon  after  his 
arrival  in  Cuzco,  Dr.  Eaton  examined  the  first  ribs 
of  carcasses  of  beef  animals  offered  for  sale  in  the 
public  markets.  He  immediately  became  convinced 
that  the  “bison”  was  a Peruvian  domestic  ox. 
“Under  the  life-conditions  prevailing  in  this  part  of 


156 


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the  Andes,  and  possibly  in  correlation  with  the 
increased  action  of  the  respiratory  muscles  in  a rare- 
fied air,  domestic  cattle  occasionally  develop  first 
ribs,  closely  approaching  the  form  observed  in 
bison.”  Such  was  the  sad  end  of  the  “ bison” 
and  the  “Cuzco  man,”  who  at  one  time  I thought 
might  be  forty  thousand  years  old,  and  now  believe 
to  have  been  two  hundred  years  old,  perhaps.  The 
word  Ayahuaycco  in  Quichua  means  “the  valley  of 
dead  bodies”  or  “dead  man's  gulch.”  There  is  a 
story  that  it  was  used  as  a burial  place  for  plague 
victims  in  Cuzco,  not  more  than  three  generations 
ago! 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  OLDEST  CITY  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA 

CUZCO,  the  oldest  city  in  South  America,  has 
changed  completely  since  Squier’s  visit.  In 
fact  it  has  altered  considerably  since  my  own  first 
impressions  of  it  were  published  in  “Across  South 
America.”  To  be  sure,  there  are  still  the  evidences 
of  antiquity  to  be  seen  on  every  side;  on  the  other 
hand  there  are  corresponding  evidences  of  advance- 
ment. Telephones,  electric  lights,  street  cars,  and 
the  “movies”  have  come  to  stay.  The  streets  are 
cleaner.  If  the  modern  traveler  finds  fault  with 
some  of  the  conditions  he  encounters  he  must 
remember  that  many  of  the  achievements  of  the 
people  of  ancient  Cuzco  are  not  yet  duplicated  in 
his  own  country  nor  have  they  ever  been  equaled 
in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  And  modern  Cuzco 
is  steadily  progressing.  The  great  square  in  front 
of  the  cathedral  was  completely  metamorphosed  by 
Prefect  Nunez  in  1911;  concrete  walks  and  beds  of 
bright  flowers  have  replaced  the  market  and  the  old 
cobblestone  paving  and  made  the  plaza  a favorite 
promenade  of  the  citizens  on  pleasant  evenings. 

The  principal  market-place  now  is  the  Plaza  of 
San  Francisco.  It  is  crowded  with  booths  of  every 
description.  Nearly  all  of  the  food-stuffs  and  uten- 
sils used  by  the  Indians  may  be  bought  here. 
Frequently  thronged  with  Indians,  buying  and 


INCA  LAND 


158 

selling,  arguing  and  jabbering,  it  affords,  particu- 
larly in  the  early  morning,  a never-ending  source  of 
entertainment  to  one  who  is  fond  of  the  picturesque 
and  interested  in  strange  manners  and  customs. 

The  retail  merchants  of  Cuzco  follow  the  very  old 
custom  of  congregating  by  classes.  In  one  street  are 
the  dealers  in  hats;  in  another  those  who  sell  coca . 
The  dressmakers  and  tailors  are  nearly  all  in  one 
long  arcade  in  a score  or  more  of  dark  little  shops. 
Their  light  seems  to  come  entirely  from  the  front 
door.  The  occupants  are  operators  of  American 
sewing-machines  who  not  only  make  clothing  to 
order,  but  always  have  on  hand  a large  assortment 
of  standard  sizes  and  patterns.  In  another  arcade 
are  the  shops  of  those  who  specialize  in  everything 
which  appeals  to  the  eye  and  the  pocketbook  of  the 
arriero:  richly  decorated  halters,  which  are  intended 
to  avert  the  Evil  Eye  from  his  best  mules;  leather 
knapsacks  in  which  to  carry  his  coca  or  other  valu- 
able articles;  cloth  cinches  and  leather  bridles;  raw- 
hide  lassos,  with  which  he  is  more  likely  to  make  a 
diamond  hitch  than  to  rope  a mule;  flutes  to  while 
away  the  weary  hours  of  his  journey,  and  candles  to 
be  burned  before  his  patron  saint  as  he  starts  for 
some  distant  village;  in  a word,  all  the  paraphernalia 
of  his  profession. 

In  order  to  learn  more  about  the  picturesque 
Quichuas  who  throng  the  streets  of  Cuzco  it  was 
felt  to  be  important  to  secure  anthropometric 
measurements  of  a hundred  Indians.  Accordingly, 
Surgeon  Nelson  set  up  a laboratory  in  the  Hotel 
Central.  His  subjects  were  the  unwilling  victims 


t 


I 


4 fh; 


MAP  OF  PERU  AND  VIEW  OF  CUZCO 
I'rom  the  “ Speculum  Orbis  Terrarum,”  Antwerp,  1578 


tli- 


OLDEST  CITY  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA  159 

of  friendly  gendarmes  who  went  out  into  the  streets 
with  orders  to  bring  for  examination  only  pure- 
blooded  Quichuas.  Most  of  the  Indians  showed  no 
resentment  and  were  in  the  end  pleased  and  sur- 
prised to  find  themselves  the  recipients  of  a small 
silver  coin  as  compensation  for  loss  of  time. 

One  might  have  supposed  that  a large  proportion 
of  Dr.  Nelson’s  subjects  would  have  claimed  Cuzco 
as  their  native  place,  but  this  was  not  the  case.  Ac- 
tually fewer  Indians  came  from  the  city  itself  than 
from  relatively  small  towns  like  Anta,  Huaracondo, 
and  Maras.  This  may  have  been  due  to  a number  of 
causes.  In  the  first  place,  the  gendarmes  may  have 
preferred  to  arrest  strangers  from  distant  villages, 
who  would  submit  more  willingly.  Secondly,  the 
city  folk  were  presumably  more  likely  to  be  in  their 
shops  attending  to  their  business  or  watching  their 
wares  in  the  plaza,  an  occupation  which  the  gen- 
darmes could  not  interrupt.  On  the  other  hand  it  is 
also  probably  true  that  the  residents  of  Cuzco  are 
of  more  mixed  descent  than  those  of  remote  villages, 
where  even  to-day  one  cannot  find  more  than  two  or 
three  individuals  who  speak  Spanish.  Furthermore, 
the  attention  of  the  gendarmes  might  have  been 
drawn  more  easily  to  the  quaintly  caparisoned 
Indians  temporarily  in  from  the  country,  where  city 
fashions  do  not  prevail,  than  to  those  who  through 
long  residence  in  the  city  had  learned  to  adopt  a 
costume  more  in  accordance  with  European  notions. 
In  1870,  according  to  Squier,  seven  eighths  of  the 
population  of  Cuzco  were  still  pure  Indian.  Even 
to-day  a large  proportion  of  the  individuals  whom 


i6o 


INCA  LAND 


one  sees  in  the  streets  appears  to  be  of  pure  aborigi- 
nal ancestry.  Of  these  we  found  that  many  are  visi- 
tors from  outlying  villages.  Cuzco  is  the  Mecca  of 
the  most  densely  populated  part  of  the  Andes. 

Probably  a large  part  of  its  citizens  are  of  mixed 
Spanish  and  Quichua  ancestry.  The  Spanish  con - 
quistadores  did  not  bring  European  women  with 
them.  Nearly  all  took  native  wives.  The  Spanish 
race  is  composed  of  such  an  extraordinary  mixture 
of  peoples  from  Europe  and  northern  Africa,  Celts, 
Iberians,  Romans,  and  Goths,  as  well  as  Carthagin- 
ians, Berbers,  and  Moors,  that  the  Hispanic  peoples 
have  far  less  antipathy  toward  intermarriage  with 
the  American  race  than  have  the  Anglo-Saxons  and 
Teutons  of  northern  Europe.  Consequently,  there 
has  gone  on  for  centuries  intermarriage  of  Spaniards 
and  Indians  with  results  which  are  difficult  to  de- 
termine. Some  writers  have  said  there  were  once 
200,000  people  in  Cuzco.  With  primitive  methods 
of  transportation  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  feed  so 
many.  Furthermore,  in  1559,  there  were,  according 
to  Montesinos,  only  20,000  Indians  in  Cuzco. 

One  of  the  charms  of  Cuzco  is  the  juxtaposition  of 
old  and  new.  Street  cars  clanging  over  steel  rails 
carry  crowds  of  well-dressed  Cuzcenos  past  Inca 
walls  to  greet  their  friends  at  the  railroad  station. 
The  driver  is  scarcely  able  by  the  most  vigorous 
application  of  his  brakes  to  prevent  his  mules  from 
crashing  into  a compact  herd  of  quiet,  supercilious 
llamas  sedately  engaged  in  bringing  small  sacks  of 
potatoes  to  the  Cuzco  market.  The  modern  convent 
of  La  Merced  is  built  of  stones  taken  from  ancient 


OLDEST  CITY  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA  161 


Inca  structures.  Fastened  to  ashlars  which  left  the 
Inca  stonemason’s  hands  six  or  seven  centuries  ago, 
one  sees  a bill-board  advertising  Cuzco’s  largest 
moving-picture  theater.  On  the  2d  of  July,  1915, 
the  performance  was  for  the  benefit  of  the  Belgian 
Red  Cross!  Gazing  in  awe  at  this  sign  were  Indian 
boys  from  some  remote  Andean  village  where  the 
custom  is  to  wear  ponchos  with  broad  fringes, 
brightly  colored,  and  knitted  caps  richly  decorated 
with  tasseled  tops  and  elaborate  ear-tabs,  a costume 
whose  design  shows  no  trace  of  European  influence. 
Side  by  side  with  these  picturesque  visitors  was  a 
barefooted  Cuzco  urchin  clad  in  a striped  jersey, 
cloth  cap,  coat,  and  pants  of  English  pattern. 

One  sees  electric  light  wires  fastened  to  the  walls 
of  houses  built  four  hundred  years  ago  by  the  Span- 
ish conquerors,  walls  which  themselves  rest  on  mas- 
sive stone  foundations  laid  by  Inca  masons  cen- 
turies before  the  conquest.  In  one  place  telephone 
wires  intercept  one’s  view  of  the  beautiful  stone 
fagade  of  an  old  Jesuit  Church,  now  part  of  the 
University  of  Cuzco.  It  is  built  of  reddish  basalt 
from  the  quarries  of  Huaccoto,  near  the  twin  peaks 
of  Mt.  Picol.  Professor  Gregory  says  that  this 
Huaccoto  basalt  has  a softness  and  uniformity  of 
texture  which  renders  it  peculiarly  suitable  for  that 
elaborately  carved  stonework  which  was  so  greatly 
desired  by  ecclesiastical  architects  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  As  compared  with  the  dense  diorite  which 
was  extensively  used  by  the  Incas,  the  basalt 
weathers  far  more  rapidly.  The  rich  red  color  of  the 
weathered  portions  gives  to  the  Jesuit  Church  an 


INCA  LAND 


162 

atmosphere  of  extreme  age.  The  courtyard  of  the 
University,  whose  arcades  echoed  to  the  feet  of 
learned  Jesuit  teachers  long  before  Yale  was  founded, 
has  recently  been  paved  with  concrete,  transformed 
into  a tennis  court,  and  now  echoes  to  the  shouts 
of  students  to  whom  Dr.  Giesecke,  the  successful 
president,  is  teaching  the  truth  of  the  ancient  axiom, 
“Mens  sana  in  cor  pore  sano” 

Modern  Cuzco  is  a city  of  about  20,000  people. 
Although  it  is  the  political  capital  of  the  most  im- 
portant department  in  southern  Peru,  it  had  in  1911 
only  one  hospital  — a semi-public,  non-sectarian 
organization  on  the  west  of  the  city,  next  door  to  the 
largest  cemetery.  In  fact,  so  far  away  is  it  from 
everything  else  and  so  close  to  the  cemetery  that  the 
funeral  wreaths  and  the  more  prominent  monuments 
are  almost  the  only  interesting  things  which  the 
patients  have  to  look  at.  The  building  has  large 
courtyards  and  open  colonnades,  which  would  afford 
ideal  conditions  for  patients  able  to  take  advantage 
of  open-air  treatment.  At  the  time  of  Surgeon 
Erving’s  visit  he  found  the  patients  were  all  kept  in 
wards  whose  windows  were  small  and  practically 
always  closed  and  shuttered,  so  that  the  atmosphere 
was  close  and  the  light  insufficient.  One  could 
hardly  imagine  a stronger  contrast  than  exists 
between  such  wards  and  those  to  which  we  are 
accustomed  in  the  United  States,  where  the  maxi- 
mum of  sunlight  and  fresh  air  is  sought  and  patients 
are  encouraged  to  sit  out-of-doors,  and  even  have 
their  cots  on  porches.  There  was  no  resident  physi- 
cian. The  utmost  care  was  taken  throughout  the 


TOWERS  OF  JESUIT  CHURCH  WITH  CLOISTERS  AND 
TENNIS  COURT  OF  UNIVERSITY,  CUZCO 


OLDEST  CITY  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA  163 


hospital  to  have  everything  as  dark  as  possible,  thus 
conforming  to  the  ancient  mountain  traditions  re- 
garding the  evil  effects  of  sunlight  and  fresh  air. 
Needless  to  say,  the  hospital  has  a high  mortality 
and  a very  poor  local  reputation ; yet  it  is  the  only 
hospital  in  the  Department.  Outside  of  Cuzco,  in  all 
the  towns  we  visited,  there  was  no  provision  for 
caring  for  the  sick  except  in  their  own  homes.  In 
the  larger  places  there  are  shops  where  some  of  the 
more  common  drugs  may  be  obtained,  but  in  the 
great  majority  of  towns  and  villages  no  modern 
medicines  can  be  purchased.  No  wonder  President 
Giesecke,  of  the  University,  is  urging  his  students 
to  play  football  and  tennis. 

On  the  slopes  of  the  hill  which  overshadows  the 
University  are  the  interesting  terraces  of  Colcam- 
pata.  Here,  in  1571,  lived  Carlos  Inca,  a cousin  of 
Inca  Titu  Cusi,  one  of  the  native  rulers  who  suc- 
ceeded in  maintaining  a precarious  existence  in  the 
wilds  of  the  Cordillera  Uilcapampa  after  the  Span- 
ish Conquest.  In  the  gardens  of  Colcampata  is  still 
preserved  one  of  the  most  exquisite  bits  of  Inca 
stonework  to  be  seen  in  Peru.  One  wonders  whether 
it  is  all  that  is  left  of  a fine  palace,  or  whether  it 
represents  the  last  efforts  of  a dying  dynasty  to  erect 
a suitable  residence  for  Titu  Cusi’s  cousin.  It  is 
carefully  preserved  by  Don  Cesare  Lomellini,  the 
leading  business  man  of  Cuzco,  a merchant  prince 
of  Italian  origin,  who  is  at  once  a banker,  an  ex- 
porter of  hides  and  other  country  produce,  and  an 
importer  of  merchandise  of  every  description,  in- 
cluding pencils  and  sugar  mills,  lumber  and  hats, 


INCA  LAND 


164 

candy  and  hardware.  He  is  also  an  amateur  of 
Spanish  colonial  furniture  as  well  as  of  the  beautiful 
pottery  of  the  Incas.  Furthermore,  he  has  always 
found  time  to  turn  aside  from  the  pressing  cares  of 
his  large  business  to  assist  our  expeditions.  He  has 
frequently  brought  us  in  touch  with  the  owners  of 
country  estates,  or  given  us  letters  of  introduction, 
so  that  our  paths  were  made  easy.  He  has  provided 
us  with  storerooms  for  our  equipment,  assisted  us  in 
procuring  trustworthy  muleteers,  seen  to  it  that  we 
were  not  swindled  in  local  purchases  of  mules  and 
pack  saddles,  given  us  invaluable  advice  in  over- 
coming difficulties,  and,  in  a word,  placed  himself 
wholly  at  our  disposal,  just  as  though  we  were  his 
most  desirable  and  best-paying  clients.  As  a matter 
of  fact,  he  never  was  willing  to  receive  any  compen- 
sation for  the  many  favors  he  showed  us.  So  im- 
portant a factor  was  he  in  the  success  of  ouFexpedi- 
tions  that  he  deserves  to  be  gratefully  remembered 
by  all  friends  of  exploration. 

Above  his  country  house  at  Colcampata  is  the 
hill  of  Sacsahuaman.  It  is  possible  to  scramble  up 
its  face,  but  only  by  making  more  exertion  than  is 
desirable  at  this  altitude,  11,900  feet.  The  easiest 
way  to  reach  the  famous  “fortress”  is  by  following 
the  course  of  the  little  Tullumayu,  “ Feeble  Stream,” 
the  easternmost  of  the  three  canalized  streams  which 
divide  Cuzco  into  four  parts.  On  its  banks  one  first 
passes  a tannery  and  then,  a short  distance  up  a 
steep  gorge,  the  remains  of  an  old  mill.  The  stone 
flume  and  the  adjoining  ruins  are  commonly  as- 
cribed by  the  people  of  Cuzco  to-day  to  the  Incas, 


OLDEST  CITY  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA  165 

but  do  not  look  to  me  like  Inca  stonework.  Since 
the  Incas  did  not  understand  the  mechanical  prin- 
ciple of  the  wheel,  it  is  hardly  likely  that  they  would 
have  known  how  to  make  any  use  of  water  power. 
Finally,  careful  examination  of  the  flume  discloses 
the  presence  of  lead  cement,  a substance  unknown 
in  Inca  masonry. 

A little  farther  up  the  stream  one  passes  through  a 
massive  megalithic  gateway  and  finds  one’s  self  in 
the  presence  of  the  astounding  gray-blue  Cyclopean 
walls  of  Sacsahuaman,  described  in  “Across  South 
America.”  Here  the  ancient  builders  constructed 
three  great  terraces,  which  extend  one  above  an- 
other for  a third  of  a mile  across  the  hill  between  two 
deep  gulches.  The  lowest  terrace  of  the  “fortress” 
is  faced  with  colossal  boulders,  many  of  which 
weigh  ten  tons  and  some  weigh  more  than  twenty 
tons,  yet  all  are  fitted  together  with  the  utmost 
precision.  I have  visited  Sacsahuaman  repeatedly. 
Each  time  it  invariably  overwhelms  and  astounds. 
To  a superstitious  Indian  who  sees  these  walls  for 
the  first  time,  they  must  seem  to  have  been  built 
by  gods. 

About  a mile  northeast  of  Sacsahuaman  are  sev- 
eral small  artificial  hills,  partly  covered  with  vege- 
tation, which  seem  to  be  composed  entirely  of  gray- 
blue  rock  chips  — chips  from  the  great  limestone 
blocks  quarried  here  for  the  “fortress”  and  later 
conveyed  with  the  utmost  pains  down  to  Sacsahua- 
man. They  represent  the  labor  of  countless  thou- 
sands of  quarrymen.  Even  in  modern  times,  with 
steam  drills,  explosives,  steel  tools,  and  light  rail- 


1 66 


INCA  LAND 


ways,  these  hills  would  be  noteworthy,  but  when 
one  pauses  to  consider  that  none  of  these  me- 
chanical devices  were  known  to  the  ancient  stone- 
masons and  that  these  mountains  of  stone  chips 
were  made  with  stone  tools  and  were  all  carried 
from  the  quarries  by  hand,  it  fairly  staggers  the 
imagination. 

The  ruins  of  Sacsahuaman  represent  not  only  an 
incredible  amount  of  human  labor,  but  also  a very 
remarkable  governmental  organization.  That  thou- 
sands of  people  could  have  been  spared  from  agri- 
cultural pursuits  for  so  long  a time  as  was  necessary 
to  extract  the  blocks  from  the  quarries,  hew  them  to 
the  required  shapes,  transport  them  several  miles 
over  rough  country,  and  bond  them  together  in 
such  an  intricate  manner,  means  that  the  leaders 
had  the  brains  and  ability  to  organize  and  arrange 
the  affairs  of  a very  large  population.  Such  a folk 
could  hardly  have  spent  much  time  in  drilling  or 
preparing  for  warfare.  Their  building  operations 
required  infinite  pains,  endless  time,  and  devoted 
skill.  Such  qualities  could  hardly  have  been  called 
forth,  even  by  powerful  monarchs,  had  not  the  re- 
sults been  pleasing  to  the  great  majority  of  their 
people,  people  who  were  primarily  agriculturists. 
They  had  learned  to  avert  hunger  and  famine  by 
relying  on  carefully  built,  stone-faced  terraces,  which 
would  prevent  their  fields  being  carried  off  and 
spread  over  the  plains  of  the  Amazon.  It  seems  to 
me  possible  that  Sacsahuaman  was  built  in  accord- 
ance with  their  desires  to  please  their  gods.  Is  it  not 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  a people  to  whom  stone- 


OLDEST  CITY  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA  167 

faced  terraces  meant  so  much  in  the  way  of  life- 
giving  food  should  have  so'metimes  built  massive 
terraces  of  Cyclopean  character,  like  Sacsahuaman, 
as  an  offering  to  the  deity  who  first  taught  them 
terrace  construction?  This  seems  to  me  a more  likely 
object  for  the  gigantic  labor  involved  in  the  con- 
struction of  Sacsahuaman  than  its  possible  useful- 
ness as  a fortress.  Equally  strong  defenses  against 
an  enemy  attempting  to  attack  the  hilltop  back  of 
Cuzco  might  have  been  constructed  of  smaller  stones 
in  an  infinitely  shorter  time,  with  far  less  labor  and 
pains. 

Such  a display  of  the  power  to  control  the  labor  of 
thousands  of  individuals  and  force  them  to  super- 
human efforts  on  an  unproductive  undertaking, 
which  in  its  agricultural  or  strategic  results  was  out 
of  all  proportion  to  the  obvious  cost,  might  have 
been  caused  by  the  supreme  vanity  of  a great  sol- 
dier. On  the  other  hand,  the  ancient  Peruvians 
were  religious  rather  than  warlike,  more  inclined  to 
worship  the  sun  than  to  fight  great  battles.  Was 
Sacsahuaman  due  to  the  desire  to  please,  at  what- 
ever cost,  the  god  that  fructified  the  crops  which 
grew  on  terraces?  It  is  not  surprising  that  the 
Spanish  conquerors,  warriors  themselves  and  de- 
scendants of  twenty  generations  of  a fighting  race, 
accustomed  as  they  were  to  the  salients  of  European 
fortresses,  should  have  looked  upon  Sacsahuaman 
as  a fortress.  To  them  the  military  use  of  its  bas- 
tions was  perfectly  obvious.  The  value  of  its  sali- 
ents and  reentrant  angles  was  not  likely  to  be  over- 
looked, for  it  had  been  only  recently  acquired  by 


INCA  LAND 


1 68 

their  crusading  ancestors.  The  height  and  strength 
of  its  powerful  walls  enabled  it  to  be  of  the  greatest 
service  to  the  soldiers  of  that  day.  They  saw  that  it 
was  virtually  impregnable  for  any  artillery  with 
which  they  were  familiar.  In  fact,  in  the  wars  of 
the  Incas  and  those  which  followed  Pizarro’s  entry 
into  Cuzco,  Sacsahuaman  was  repeatedly  used  as  a 
fortress. 

So  it  probably  never  occurred  to  the  Spaniards 
that  the  Peruvians,  who  knew  nothing  of  explosive 
powder  or  the  use  of  artillery,  did  not  construct 
Sacsahuaman  in  order  to  withstand  such  a siege  as 
the  fortresses  of  Europe  were  only  too  familiar  with. 
So  natural  did  it  seem  to  the  first  Europeans  who 
saw  it  to  regard  it  as  a fortress  that  it  has  seldom 
been  thought  of  in  any  other  way.  The  fact  that  the 
sacred  city  of  Cuzco  was  more  likely  to  be  attacked 
by  invaders  coming  up  the  valley,  or  even  over  the 
gentle  slopes  from  the  west,  or  through  the  pass  from 
the  north  which  for  centuries  has  been  used  as  part 
of  the  main  highway  of  the  central  Andes,  never 
seems  to  have  troubled  writers  who  regarded  Sacsa- 
huaman essentially  as  a fortress.  It  may  be  that 
Sacsahuaman  was  once  used  as  a place  where  the 
votaries  of  the  sun  gathered  at  the  end  of  the  rainy 
season  to  celebrate  the  vernal  equinox,  and  at  the 
summer  solstice  to  pray  for  the  sun’s  return  from  his 
“farthest  north.”  In  any  case  I believe  that  the 
enormous  cost  of  its  construction  shows  that  it  was 
probably  intended  for  religious  rather  than  military 
purposes.  It  is  more  likely  to  have  been  an  ancient 
shrine  than  a mighty  fortress. 


OLDEST  CITY  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA  169 

It  now  becomes  necessary,  in  order  to  explain  my 
explorations  north  of  Cuzco,  to  ask  the  reader’s  at* 
tention  to  a brief  account  of  the  last  four  Incas  who 
ruled  over  any  part  of  Peru. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS 

READERS  of  Prescott’s  charming  classic,  “The 
Conquest  of  Peru,”  will  remember  that  Pizarro, 
after  killing  Atahualpa,  the  Inca  who  had  tried  in 
vain  to  avoid  his  fate  by  filling  a room  with  vessels 
of  gold,  decided  to  establish  a native  prince  on  the 
throne  of  the  Incas  to  rule  in  accordance  with  the 
dictates  of  Spain.  The  young  prince,  Manco,  a son 
of  the  great  Inca  Huayna  Capac,  named  for  the  first 
Inca,  Manco  Ccapac,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty, 
was  selected  as  the  most  acceptable  figurehead.  He 
was  a young  man  of  ability  and  spirit.  His  induction 
into  office  in  1534  with  appropriate  ceremonies,  the 
barbaric  splendor  of  which  only  made  the  farce  the 
more  pitiful,  did  little  to  gratify  his  natural  ambi- 
tion. As  might  have  been  foreseen,  he  chafed  under 
restraint,  escaped  as  soon  as  possible  from  his  at- 
tentive guardians,  and  raised  an  army  of  faithful 
Quichuas.  There  followed  the  siege  of  Cuzco,  briefly 
characterized  by  Don  Alonzo  Enriques  de  Guzman, 
who  took  part  in  it,  as  “the  most  fearful  and  cruel 
war  in  the  world.”  When  in  1536  Cuzco  was  re- 
lieved by  Pizarro’s  comrade,  Almagro,  and  Manco’s 
last  chance  of  regaining  the  ancient  capital  of  his 
ancestors  failed,  the  Inca  retreated  to  Ollantay- 
tambo.  Here,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Urubamba, 
Manco  made  a determined  stand,  but  Ollantay- 


GLACIERS  BETWEEN  CUZCO  AND  UITICOS 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS  171 

tambo  was  too  easily  reached  by  Pizarro’s  mounted 
cavaliers.  The  Inca’s  followers,  although  aroused  to 
their  utmost  endeavors  by  the  presence  of  the  mag- 
nificent stone  edifices,  fortresses,  granaries,  palaces, 
and  hanging  gardens  of  their  ancestors,  found  it 
necessary  to  retreat.  They  fled  in  a northerly  direc- 
tion and  made  good  their  escape  over  snowy  passes 
to  Uiticos  in  the  fastnesses  of  Uilcapampa,  a veri- 
table American  Switzerland. 

The  Spaniards  who  attempted  to  follow  Manco 
found  his  position  practically  impregnable.  The 
citadel  of  Uilcapampa,  a gigantic  natural  fortress 
defended  by  Nature  in  one  of  her  profoundest 
moods,  was  only  to  be  reached  by  fording  dangerous 
torrents,  or  crossing  the  mountains  by  narrow  defiles 
which  themselves  are  higher  than  the  most  lofty 
peaks  of  Europe.  It  was  hazardous  for  Hannibal  and 
Napoleon  to  bring  their  armies  through  the  com- 
paratively low  passes  of  the  Alps.  Pizarro  found  it 
impossible  to  follow  the  Inca  Manco  over  the  Pass  of 
Panticalla,  itself  a snowy  wilderness  higher  than  the 
summit  of  Mont  Blanc.  In  no  part  of  the  Peruvian 
Andes  are  there  so  many  beautiful  snowy  peaks. 
Near  by  is  the  sharp,  icy  pinnacle  of  Mt.  Veronica 
(elevation  19,342  ft.).  Not  far  away  is  another  mag- 
nificent snow-capped  peak,  Mt.  Salcantay,  20,565 
feet  above  the  sea.  Near  Salcantay  is  the  sharp 
needle  of  Mt.  Soray  (19,435  ft.),  while  to  the  west  of 
it  are  Panta  (18,590  ft.)  and  Soiroccocha  (18,197  ft*). 
On  the  shoulders  of  these  mountains  are  unnamed 
glaciers  and  little  valleys  that  have  scarcely  ever 
been  seen  except  by  some  hardy  prospector  or 


172 


INCA  LAND 


inquisitive  explorer.  These  valleys  are  to  be  reached 
only  through  passes  where  the  traveler  is  likely  to 
be  waylaid  by  violent  storms  of  hail  and  snow. 
During  the  rainy  season  a large  part  of  Uilcapampa 
is  absolutely  impenetrable.  Even  in  the  dry  season 
the  difficulties  of  transportation  are  very  great.  The 
most  sure-footed  mule  is  sometimes  unable  to  use 
the  trails  without  assistance  from  man.  It  was  an 
ideal  place  for  the  Inca  Manco. 

The  conquistador , Cieza  de  Leon,  who  wrote  in 
I55°  a graphic  account  of  the  wars  of  Peru,  says  that 
Manco  took  with  him  a “great  quantity  of  treasure, 
collected  from  various  parts  . . . and  many  loads  of 
rich  clothirig  of  wool,  delicate  in  texture  and  very 
beautiful  and  showy.”  The  Spaniards  were  abso- 
lutely unable  to  conceive  of  the  ruler  of  a country 
traveling  without  rich  “treasure.”  It  is  extremely 
doubtful  whether  Manco  burdened  himself  with 
much  gold  or  silver.  Except  for  ornament  there  was 
little  use  to  which  he  could  have  put  the  precious 
metals  and  they  would  have  served  only  to  arouse 
the  cupidity  of  his  enemies.  His  people  had  never 
been  paid  in  gold  or  silver.  Their  labor  was  his  due, 
and  only  such  part  of  it  as  was  needed  to  raise  their 
own  crops  and  make  their  own  clothing  was  allotted 
to  them;  in  fact,  their  lives  were  in  his  hands  and 
the  custom  and  usage  of  centuries  made  them  faith- 
ful followers  of  their  great  chief.  That  Manco,  how- 
ever, actually  did  carry  off  with  him  beautiful  tex- 
tiles, and  anything  else  which  was  useful,  may  be 
taken  for  granted.  In  Uiticos,  safe  from  the  armed 
forces  of  his  enemies,  the  Inca  was  also  able  to  enjoy 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS 


173 


the  benefits  of  a delightful  climate,  and  was  in  a 
well-watered  region  where  corn,  potatoes,  both 
white  and  sweet,  and  the  fruits  of  the  temperate  and 
sub-tropical  regions  easily  grow.  Using  this  as  a 
base,  he  was  accustomed  to  sally  forth  against  the 
Spaniards  frequently  and  in  unexpected  directions. 
His  raids  were  usually  successful.  It  was  relatively 
easy  for  him,  with  a handful  of  followers,  to  dash 
out  of  the  mountain  fastnesses,  cross  the  Apurimac 
River  either  by  swimming  or  on  primitive  rafts, 
and  reach  the  great  road  between  Cuzco  and  Lima, 
the  principal  highway  of  Peru.  Officials  and  mer- 
chants whose  business  led  them  over  this  route 
found  it  extremely  precarious.  Manco  cheered  his 
followers  by  making  them  realize  that  in  these  raids 
they  were  taking  sweet  revenge  on  the  Spaniards 
for  what  they  had  done  to  Peru.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  Cieza  de  Leon  justifies  Manco  in  his  at- 
titude, for  the  Spaniards  had  indeed  “seized  his 
inheritance,  forcing  him  to  leave  his  native  land, 
and  to  live  in  banishment.” 

Manco’s  success  in  securing  such  a place  of  refuge, 
and  in  using  it  as  a base  from  which  he  could  fre- 
quently annoy  his  enemies,  led  many  of  the  Orejones 
of  Cuzco  to  follow  him.  The  Inca  chiefs  were  called 
Orejones , “big  ears,”  by  the  Spaniards  because  the 
lobes  of  their  ears  had  been  enlarged  artificially  to 
receive  the  great  gold  earrings  which  they  were  fond 
of  wearing.  Three  years  after  Manco’s  retirement 
to  the  wilds  of  Uilcapampa  there  was  born  in  Cuzco 
in  the  year  1539,  Garcilasso  Inca  de  la  Vega,  the  son 
of  an  Inca  princess  and  one  of  the  conquistador es. 


174 


INCA  LAND 


As  a small  child  Garcilasso  heard  of  the  activities 
of  his  royal  relative.  He  left  Peru  as  a boy  and 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  Spain.  After  forty  >ears 
in  Europe  he  wrote,  partly  from  memory,  his 
“ Royal  Commentaries,”  an  account  of  the  country 
of  his  Indian  ancestors.  Of  the  Inca  Manco,  of 
whom  he  must  frequently  have  heard  uncompli- 
mentary reports  as  a child,  he  speaks  apologetically. 
He  says:  “In  the  time  of  Manco  Inca,  several  rob- 
beries were  committed  on  the  road  by  his  subjects; 
but  still  they  had  that  respect  for  the  Spanish  Mer- 
chants that  they  let  them  go  free  and  never  pillaged 
them  of  their  wares  and  merchandise,  which  were  in 
no  manner  useful  to  them;  howsoever  they  robbed 
the  Indians  of  their  cattle  [llamas  and  alpacas], 
bred  in  the  countrey.  . . . The  Inca  lived  in  the 
Mountains,  which  afforded  no  tame  Cattel;  and 
only  produced  Tigers  and  Lions  and  Serpents  of 
twenty-five  and  thirty  feet  long,  with  other  veno- 
mous insects.”  (I  am  quoting  from  Sir  Paul 
Rycaut’s  translation,  published  in  London  in  1688.) 
Garcilasso  says  Manco’s  soldiers  took  only  “such 
food  as  they  found  in  the  hands  of  the  Indians; 
which  the  Inca  did  usually  call  his  own,”  saying, 
“That  he  who  was  Master  of  that  whole  Empire 
might  lawfully  challenge  such  a proportion  thereof 
as  was  convenient  to  supply  his  necessary  and 
natural  support”  — a reasonable  apology;  and  yet 
personally  I doubt  whether  Manco  spared  the 
Spanish  merchants  and  failed  to  pillage  them  of 
their  “wares  and  merchandise.”  As  will  be  seen 
later,  we  found  in  Manco’s  palace  some  metal 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS 


175 


articles  of  European  origin  which  might  very  well 
have  been  taken  by  Manco^  raiders.  Furthermore, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  Garcilasso,  although 
often  quoted  by  Prescott,  left  Peru  when  he  was 
sixteen  years  old  and  that  his  ideas  were  largely 
colored  by  his  long  life  in  Spain  and  his  natural 
desire  to  extol  the  virtues  of  his  mother’s  people,  a 
brown  race  despised  by  the  white  Europeans  for 
whom  he  wrote. 

The  methods  of  warfare  and  the  weapons  used 
by  Manco  and  his  followers  at  this  time  are  thus 
described  by  Guzman.  He  says  the  Indians  had  no 
defensive  arms  such  as  helmets,  shields,  and  armor, 
but  used  “lances,  arrows,  clubs,  axes,  halberds, 
darts,  and  slings,  and  another  weapon  which  they 
call  ayllas  (the  bolas),  consisting  of  three  round 
stones  sewn  up  in  leather,  and  each  fastened  to  a 
cord  a cubit  long.  They  throw  these  at  the  horses, 
and  thus  bind  their  legs  together;  and  sometimes 
they  will  fasten  a man’s  arms  to  his  sides  in  the 
same  way.  These  Indians  are  so  expert  in  the  use  of 
this  weapon  that  they  will  bring  down  a deer  with 
it  in  the  chase.  Their  principal  weapon,  however,  is 
the  sling.  . . . With  it,  they  will  hurl  a huge  stone 
with  such  force  that  it  will  kill  a horse;  in  truth,  the 
effect  is  little  less  great  than  that  of  an  arquebus; 
and  I have  seen  a stone,  thus  hurled  from  a sling, 
break  a sword  in  two  pieces  which  was  held  in  a 
man’s  hand  at  a distance  of  thirty  paces.” 

Manco’s  raids  finally  became  so  annoying  that 
Pizarro  sent  a small  force  from  Cuzco  under  Cap- 
tain Villadiego  to  attack  the  Inca.  Captain  Villa- 


INCA  LAND 


17  6 

diego  found  it  impossible  to  use  horses,  although 
he  realized  that  cavalry  was  the  “ important  arm 
against  these  Indians.”  Confident  in  his  strength 
and  in  the  efficacy  of  his  firearms,  and  anxious  tc 
enjoy  the  spoils  of  a successful  raid  against  a chief 
reported  to  be  traveling  surrounded  by  his  family 
“and  with  rich  treasure ,”  he  pressed  eagerly  on,  up 
through  a lofty  valley  toward  a defile  in  the  moun- 
tains, probably  the  Pass  of  Panticalla.  Here,  fa- 
tigued and  exhausted  by  their  difficult  march  and 
suffering  from  the  effects  of  the  altitude  (16,000  ft.), 
his  men  found  themselves  ambushed  by  the  Inca, 
who  with  a small  party,  “little  more  than  eighty 
Indians,”  “attacked  the  Christians,  who  numbered 
twenty-eight  or  thirty,  and  killed  Captain  Villa- 
diego  and  all  his  men  except  two  or  three.”  To  any 
one  who  has  clambered  over  the  passes  of  the  Cor- 
dillera Uilcapampa  it  is  not  surprising  that  this 
military  expedition  was  a failure  or  that  the  Inca, 
warned  by  keen-sighted  Indians  posted  on  appro- 
priate vantage  points,  could  have  succeeded  in 
defeating  a small  force  of  weary  soldiers  armed  with 
the  heavy  blunderbuss  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
In  a rocky  pass,  protected  by  huge  boulders,  and 
surrounded  by  quantities  of  natural  ammunition  for 
their  slings,  it  must  have  been  relatively  simple  for 
eighty  Quichuas,  who  could  “hurl  a huge  stone  with 
such  force  that  it  would  kill  a horse,  ” to  have  lit- 
erally stoned  to  death  Captain  Villadiego’s  little 
company  before  they  could  have  prepared  their 
clumsy  weapons  for  firing. 

The  fugitives  returned  to  Cuzco  and  reported 


THE  URUBAMBA  CANYON 
A reason  for  the  safety  of  the  Incas  in  Uilcapampa 


f 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS 


177 


their  misfortune.  The  importance  of  the  reverse  will 
be  better  appreciated  if  one  remembers  that  the  size 
of  the  force  with  which  Pizarro  conquered  Peru  was 
less  than  two  hundred,  only  a few  times  larger  than 
Captain  Villadiego’s  company  which  had  been  wiped 
out  by  Manco.  Its  significance  is  further  increased 
by  the  fact  that  the  contemporary  Spanish  writers, 
with  all  their  tendency  to  exaggerate,  placed 
Manco’s  force  at  only  “a  little  more  than  eighty 
Indians.”  Probably  there  were  not  even  that  many. 
The  wonder  is  that  the  Inca’s  army  was  not  re- 
ported as  being  several  thousand. 

Francisco  Pizarro  himself  now  hastily  set  out 
with  a body  of  soldiers  determined  to  punish  this 
young  Inca  who  had  inflicted  such  a blow  on  the 
prestige  of  Spanish  arms,  “but  this  attempt  also 
failed,  ” for  the  Inca  had  withdrawn  across  the  rivers 
and  mountains  of  Uilcapampa  to  Uiticos,  where, 
according  to  Cieza  de  Leon,  he  cheered  his  followers 
with  the  sight  of  the  heads  of  his  enemies.  Unfortu- 
nately for  accuracy,  the  custom  of  displaying  on  the 
ends  of  pikes  the  heads  of  one’s  enemies  was  Eu- 
ropean and  not  Peruvian.  To  be  sure,  the  savage 
Indians  of  some  of  the  Amazonian  jungles  do  some- 
times decapitate  their  enemies,  remove  the  bones  of 
the  skull,  dry  the  shrunken  scalp  and  face,  and  wear 
the  trophy  as  a mark  of  prowess  just  as  the  North 
American  Indians  did  the  scalps  of  their  enemies. 
Such  customs  had  no  place  among  the  peace-loving 
Inca  agriculturists  of  central  Peru.  There  were  no 
Spaniards  living  with  Manco  at  that  time  to  report 
any  such,  outrage  on  the  bodies  of  Captain  Villa- 


INCA  LAND 


178 

diego’s  unfortunate  men.  Probably  the  conquista - 
dores  supposed  that  Manco  did  what  the  Spaniards 
would  have  done  under  similar  circumstances. 

Following  the  failure  of  Francisco  Pizarro  to  pene- 
trate to  Uiticos,  his  brother,  Gonzalo,  “undertook 
the  pursuit  of  the  Inca  and  occupied  some  of  his 
passes  and  bridges,”  but  was  unsuccessful  in  pene- 
trating the  mountain  labyrinth.  Being  less  fool- 
hardy than  Captain  Villadiego,  he  did  not  come 
into  actual  conflict  with  Manco.  Unable  to  subdue 
the  young  Inca  or  prevent  his  raids  on  travelers 
from  Cuzco  to  Lima,  Francisco  Pizarro,  “with  the 
assent  of  the  royal  officers  who  were  with  him,”  es- 
tablished the  city  of  Ayacucho  at  a convenient 
point  on  the  road,  so  as  to  make  it  secure  for  travel- 
ers. Nevertheless,  according  to  Montesinos,  Manco 
caused  the  good  people  of  Ayacucho  quite  a little 
trouble.  Finally,  Francisco  Pizarro,  “having  taken 
one  of  Manco’s  wives  prisoner  with  other  Indians, 
stripped  and  flogged  her,  and  then  shot  her  to  death 
with  arrows.” 

Accounts  of  what  happened  in  Uiticos  under  the 
rule  of  Manco  are  not  very  satisfactory.  Father 
Calancha,  who  published  in  1639  his  “ Coronica 
Moralizada ,”  or  “pious  account  of  the  missionary 
activities  of  the  Augustinians  ” in  Peru,  says  that 
the  Inca  Manco  was  obeyed  by  all  the  Indians  who 
lived  in  a region  extending  “for  two  hundred  leagues 
and  more  toward  the  east  and  toward  the  south, 
where  there  were  innumerable  Indians  in  various 
provinces.”  With  customary  monastic  zeal  and 
proper  religious  fervor,  Father  Calancha  accuses 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS 


179 


the  Inca  of  compelling  the  baptized  Indians  who 
fled  to  him  from  the  Spaniards  to  abandon  their  new 
faith,  torturing  those  who  would  no  longer  worship 
the  old  Inca  “idols.”  This  story  need  not  be  taken 
too  literally,  although  undoubtedly  the  escaped 
Indians  acted  as  though  they  had  never  been  bap- 
tized. 

Besides  Indians  fleeing  from  harsh  masters,  there 
came  to  Uilcapampa,  in  1542,  Gomez  Perez,  Diego 
Mendez,  and  half  a dozen  other  Spanish  fugitives, 
adherents  of  Almagro,  “rascals,”  says  Calancha, 
“worthy  of  Manco’s  favor.”  Obliged  by  the  civil 
wars  of  the  conquistador es  to  flee  from  the  Pizarros, 
they  were  glad  enough  to  find  a welcome  in  Uiticos. 
To  while  away  the  time  they  played  games  and 
taught  the  Inca  checkers  and  chess,  as  well  as 
bowling-on- the-green  and  quoits.  Montesinos  says 
they  also  taught  him  to  ride  horseback  and  shoot 
an  arquebus.  They  took  their  games  very  seriously 
and  occasionally  violent  disputes  arose,  one  of 
which,  as  we  shall  see,  was  to  have  fatal  conse- 
quences. They  were  kept  informed  by  Manco  of 
what  was  going  on  in  the  viceroyalty.  Although 
“encompassed  within  craggy  and  lofty  mountains,” 
the  Inca  was  thoroughly  cognizant  of  all  those 
“revolutions”  which  might  be  of  benefit  to  him. 

Perhaps  the  most  exciting  news  that  reached 
Uiticos  in  1544  was  in  regard  to  the  arrival  of  the 
first  Spanish  viceroy.  He  brought  the  New  Laws,  a 
result  of  the  efforts  of  the  good  Bishop  Las  Casas  to 
alleviate  the  sufferings  of  the  Indians.  The  New 
Laws  provided,  among  other  things,  that  all  the 


i8o 


INCA  LAND 


officers  of  the  crown  were  to  renounce  their  reparti • 
mientos  or  holdings  of  Indian  serfs,  and  that  com- 
pulsory personal  service  was  to  be  entirely  abolished. 
Repar timientos  given  to  the  conquerors  were  not  to 
pass  to  their  heirs,  but  were  to  revert  to  the  king. 
In  other  words,  the  New  Laws  gave  evidence  that 
the  Spanish  crown  wished  to  be  kind  to  the  Indians 
and  did  not  approve  of  the  Pizarros.  This  was  good 
news  for  Manco  and  highly  pleasing  to  the  refugees. 
They  persuaded  the  Inca  to  write  a letter  to  the  new 
viceroy,  asking  permission  to  appear  before  him 
and  offer  his  services  to  the  king.  The  Spanish 
refugees  told  the  Inca  that  by  this  means  he  might 
some  day  recover  his  empire,  “or  at  least  the  best 
part  of  it.”  Their  object  in  persuading  the  Inca  to 
send  such  a message  to  the  viceroy  becomes  appar- 
ent when  we  learn  that  they  “also  wrote  as  from 
themselves  desiring  a pardon  for  what  was  past” 
and  permission  to  return  to  Spanish  dominions. 

Gomez  Perez,  who  seems  to  have  been  the  active 
leader  of  the  little  group,  was  selected  to  be  the 
bearer  of  the  letters  from  the  Inca  and  the  refugees. 
Attended  by  a dozen  Indians  whom  the  Inca  in- 
structed to  act  as  his  servants  and  bodyguard,  he 
left  Uilcapampa,  presented  his  letters  to  the  viceroy, 
and  gave  him  “a  large  relation  of  the  State  and 
Condition  of  the  Inca,  and  of  his  true  and  real 
designs  to  doe  him  service.”  “The  Vice-king  joy- 
fully received  the  news,  and  granted  a full  and 
ample  pardon  of  all  crimes,  as  desired.  And  as  to 
the  Inca,  he  made  many  kind  expressions  of  love 
and  respect,  truly  considering  that  the  Interest  of 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS 


181 


the  Inca  might  be  advantageous  to  him,  both  in 
War  and  Peace.  And  with  this  satisfactory  answer 
Gomez  Perez  returned  both  to  the  Inca  and  to  his 
companions.’ ’ The  refugees  were  delighted  with  the 
news  and  got  ready  to  return  to  king  and  country. 
Their  departure  from  Uiticos  was  prevented  by  a 
tragic  accident,  thus  described  by  Garcilasso. 

“The  Inca,  to  humour  the  Spaniards  and  enter- 
tain himself  with  them,  had  given  directions  for 
making  a bowling-green;  where  playing  one  day 
with  Gomez  Perez,  he  came  to  have  some  quarrel 
and  difference  with  this  Perez  about  the  measure  of 
a Cast,  which  often  happened  between  them;  for 
this  Perez,  being  a person  of  a hot  and  fiery  brain, 
without  any  judgment  or  understanding,  would 
take  the  least  occasion  in  the  world  to  contend  with 
and  provoke  the  Inca.  . . . Being  no  longer  able  to 
endure  his  rudeness,  the  Inca  punched  him  on  the 
breast,  and  bid  him  to  consider  with  whom  he  talked. 
Perez,  not  considering  in  his  heat  and  passion  either 
his  own  safety  or  the  safety  of  his  Companions, 
lifted  up  his  hand,  and  with  the  bowl  struck  the 
Inca  so  violently  on  the  head,  that  he  knocked  him 
down.  [He  died  three  days  later.]  The  Indians  here- 
upon, being  enraged  by  the  death  of  their  Prince, 
joined  together  against  Gomez  and  the  Spaniards, 
who  fled  into  a house,  and  with  their  Swords  in  their 
hands  defended  the  door;  the  Indians  set  fire  to  the 
house,  which  being  too  hot  for  them,  they  sallied  out 
into  the  Marketplace,  where  the  Indians  assaulted 
them  and  shot  them  with  their  Arrows  until  they 
had  killed  every  man  of  them ; and  then  afterwards, 


INCA  LAND 


182 

out  of  mere  rage  and  fury  they  designed  either  to 
eat  them  raw  as  their  custome  was,  or  to  burn  them 
and  cast  their  ashes  into  the  river,  that  no  sign  or 
appearance  might  remain  of  them;  but  at  length, 
after  some  consultation,  they  agreed  to  cast  their 
bodies  into  the  open  fields,  to  be  devoured  by  vul- 
ters  and  birds  of  the  air,  which  they  supposed  to  be 
the  highest  indignity  and  dishonour  that  they  could 
show  to  their  Corps.”  Garcilasso  concludes:  “I 
informed  myself  very  perfectly  from  those  chiefs 
and  nobles  who  were  present  and  eye-witnesses  of 
the  unparalleled  piece  of  madness  of  that  rash  and 
hair-brained  fool;  and  heard  them  tell  this  story  to 
my  mother  and  parents  with  tears  in  their  eyes.” 
There  are  many  versions  of  the  tragedy.1  They  all 
agree  that  a Spaniard  murdered  the  Inca. 

1 Another  version  of  this  event  is  that  the  quarrel  was  over  a game 
of  chess  between  the  Inca  and  Diego  Mendez,  another  of  the  refugees, 
who  lost  his  temper  and  called  the  Inca  a dog.  Angered  at  the  tone 
and  language  of  his  guest,  the  Inca  gave  him  a blow  with  his  fist. 
Diego  Mendez  thereupon  drew  a dagger  and  killed  him.  A totally 
different  account  from  the  one  obtained  by  Garcilasso  from  his 
informants  is  that  in  a volume  purporting  to  have  been  dictated  to 
Friar  Marcos  by  Manco’s  son,  Titu  Cusi,  twenty  years  after  the 
event.  I quote  from  Sir  Clements  Markham’s  translation: 

“After  these  Spaniards  had  been  with  my  Father  for  several  years 
in  the  said  town  of  Viticos  they  were  one  day,  with  much  good  fellow- 
ship, playing  at  quoits  with  him;  only  them,  my  Father  and  me,  who 
was  then  a boy  [ten  years  old].  Without  having  any  suspicion,  al- 
though an  Indian  woman,  named  Banba,  had  said  that  the  Spaniards 
wanted  to  murder  the  Inca,  my  Father  was  playing  with  them  as 
usual.  In  this  game,  just  as  my  Father  was  raising  the  quoit  to  throw, 
they  all  rushed  upon  him  with  knives,  daggers  and  some  swords. 
My  Father,  feeling  himself  wounded,  strove  to  make  some  defence, 
but  he  was  one  and  unarmed,  and  they  were  seven  fully  armed; 
he  fell  to  the  ground  covered  with  wounds,  and  they  left  him  for 
dead.  I,  being  a little  boy,  and  seeing  my  Father  treated  in  this 
manner,  wanted  to  go  where  he  was  to  help  him.  But  they  turned 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS  183 

Thus,  in  1545,  the  reign  of  an  attractive  and  vigor- 
ous personality  was  brought  to  an  abrupt  close. 
Manco  left  three  young  sons,  Sayri  Tupac,  Titu 
Cusi,  and  Tupac  Amaru.  Sayri  Tupac,  although  he 
had  not  yet  reached  his  majority,  became  Inca  in  his 
father’s  stead,  and  with  the  aid  of  regents  reigned 
for  ten  years  without  disturbing  his  Spanish  neigh- 
bors or  being  annoyed  by  them,  unless  the  reference 
in  Montesinos  to  a proposed  burning  of  bridges  near 
Abancay,  under  date  of  1555,  is  correct.  By  a curi- 
ous lapse  Montesinos  ascribes  this  attempt  to  the 
Inca  Manco,  who  had  been  dead  for  ten  years.  In 
1555  there  came  to  Lima  a new  viceroy,  who  decided 
that  it  would  be  safer  if  young  Sayri  Tupac  were 
within  reach  instead  of  living  in  the  inaccessible 
wilds  of  Uilcapampa.  The  viceroy  wisely  undertook 
to  accomplish  this  difficult  matter  through  the 
Princess  Beatrix  Coya,  an  aunt  of  the  Inca,  who  was 
living  in  Cuzco.  She  took  kindly  to  the  suggestion 
and  dispatched  to  Uiticos  a messenger,  of  the  blood 
royal,  attended  by  Indian  servants.  The  journey 
was  a dangerous  one;  bridges  were  down  and  the 


furiously  upon  me,  and  hurled  a lance  which  only  just  failed  to  kill  me 
also.  I was  terrified  and  fled  amongst  some  bushes.  They  looked  for 
me,  but  could  not  find  me.  The  Spaniards,  seeing  that  my  Father 
had  ceased  to  breathe,  went  out  of  the  gate,  in  high  spirits,  saying, 
‘Now  that  we  have  killed  the  Inca  we  have  nothing  to  fear.’  But 
at  this  moment  the  captain  Rimachi  Yupanqui  arrived  with  some 
Antis,  and  presently  chased  them  in  such  sort  that,  before  they 
could  get  very  far  along  a difficult  road,  they  were  caught  and  pulled 
from  their  horses.  They  all  had  to  suffer  very  cruel  deaths  and 
some  were  burnt.  Notwithstanding  his  wounds  my  Father  lived  for 
three  days.” 

Another  version  is  given  by  Montesinos  in  his  Anales.  It  is  more 
like  Titu  Cusi’s. 


INCA  LAND 


184 

treacherous  trails  were  well-nigh  impassable.  Sayri 
Tupac’s  regents  permitted  the  messenger  to  enter 
Uilcapampa  and  deliver  the  viceroy’s  invitation, 
but  were  not  inclined  to  believe  that  it  was  quite  so 
attractive  as  appeared  on  the  surface,  even  though 
brought  to  them  by  a kinsman.  Accordingly,  they 
kept  the  visitor  as  a hostage  and  sent  a messenger 
of  their  own  to  Cuzco  to  see  if  any  foul  play  could 
be  discovered,  and  also  to  request  that  one  John 
Sierra,  a more  trusted  cousin,  be  sent  to  treat  in  this 
matter.  All  this  took  time. 

In  1558  the  viceroy,  becoming  impatient,  dis- 
patched from  Lima  Friar  Melchior  and  one  John 
Betanzos,  who  had  married  the  daughter  of  the 
unfortunate  Inca  Atahualpa  and  pretended  to  be 
very  learned  in  his  wife’s  language.  Montesinos 
says  he  was  a “great  linguist.”  They  started  off 
quite  confidently  for  Uiticos,  taking  with  them  sev- 
eral pieces  of  velvet  and  damask,  and  two  cups  of 
gilded  silver  as  presents.  Anxious  to  secure  the 
honor  of  being  the  first  to  reach  the  Inca,  they  trav- 
eled as  fast  as  they  could  to  the  Chuquichaca  bridge, 
“the  key  to  the  valley  of  Uiticos.”  Here  they  were 
detained  by  the  soldiers  of  the  regents.  A day  or  so 
later  John  Sierra,  the  Inca’s  cousin  from  Cuzco, 
arrived  at  the  bridge  and  was  allowed  to  proceed, 
while  the  friar  and  Betanzos  were  still  detained. 
John  Sierra  was  welcomed  by  the  Inca  and  his 
nobles,  and  did  his  best  to  encourage  Sayri  Tupac  to 
accept  the  viceroy’s  offer.  Finally  John  Betanzos 
and  the  friar  were  also  sent  for  and  admitted  to  the 
presence  of  the  Inca,  with  the  presents  which  the 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS  185 

viceroy  had  sent.  Sayri  Tupac’s  first  idea  was  to 
remain  free  and  independent  as  he  had  hitherto 
done,  so  he  requested  the  ambassadors  to  depart 
immediately  with  their  silver  gilt  cups.  They  were 
sent  back  by  one  of  the  western  routes  across  the 
Apurimac.  A few  days  later,  however,  after  John 
Sierra  had  told  him  some  interesting  stories  of  life 
in  Cuzco,  the  Inca  decided  to  reconsider  the  matter. 
His  regents  had  a long  debate,  observed  the  flying  of 
birds  and  the  nature  of  the  weather,  but  according 
to  Garcilasso  “made  no  inquiries  of  the  devil.”  The 
omens  were  favorable  and  the  regents  finally  decided 
to  allow  the  Inca  to  accept  the  invitation  of  the 
viceroy. 

Sayri  Tupac,  anxious  to  see  something  of  the 
world,  went  directly  to  Lima,  traveling  in  a litter 
made  of  rich  materials,  carried  by  relays  chosen 
from  the  three  hundred  Indians  who  attended  him. 
He  was  kindly  received  by  the  viceroy,  and  then 
went  to  Cuzco,  where  he  lodged  in  his  aunt’s  house. 
Here  his  relatives  went  to  welcome  him.  “I,  my- 
self,” says  Garcilasso,  “went  in  the  name  of  my 
Father.  I found  him  then  playing  a certain  game 
used  amongst  the  Indians.  ...  I kissed  his  hands, 
and  delivered  my  Message;  he  commanded  me  to 
sit  down,  and  presently  they  brought  two  gilded 
cups  of  that  Liquor,  made  of  Mayz  [chicha]  which 
scarce  contained  four  ounces  of  Drink;  he  took  them 
both,  and  with  his  own  Hand  he  gave  one  of  them 
to  me;  he  drank,  and  I pledged  him,  which  as  we 
have  said,  is  the  custom  of  Civility  amongst  them. 
This  Ceremony  being  past,  he  asked  me,  Why  I did 


1 86 


INCA  LAND 


not  meet  him  at  Uiilcapampa.  I answered  him, 
‘Inca,  as  I am  but  a Youngman,  the  Governours 
make  no  account  of  me,  to  place  me  in  such  Cere- 
monies as  these!  ‘How/  replied  the  Inca,  ‘I  would 
rather  have  seen  you  than  all  the  Friers  and  Fa- 
thers in  Town/  As  I was  going  away  I made  him  a 
submissive  bow  and  reverence,  after  the  manner  of 
the  Indians,  who  are  of  his  Alliance  and  Kindred,  at 
which  he  was  so  much  pleased,  that  he  embraced  me 
heartily,  and  with  much  affection,  as  appeared  by 
his  Countenance.” 

Sayri  Tupac  now  received  the  sacred  Red  Fringe 
of  Inca  sovereignty,  was  married  to  a princess  of 
the  blood  royal,  joined  her  in  baptism,  and  took  up 
his  abode  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  Yucay,  a day’s 
journey  northeast  of  Cuzco,  and  never  returned  to 
Uiticos.  His  only  daughter  finally  married  a certain 
Captain  Garcia,  of  whom  more  anon.  Sayri  Tupac 
died  in  1560,  leaving  two  brothers;  the  older,  Titu 
Cusi  Yupanqui,  illegitimate,  and  the  younger, 
Tupac  Amaru,  his  rightful  successor,  an  inexperi- 
enced youth. 

The  throne  of  Uiticos  was  seized  by  Titu  Cusi. 
The  new  Inca  seems  to  have  been  suspicious  of  the 
untimely  death  of  Sayri  Tupac,  and  to  have  felt 
that  the  Spaniards  were  capable  of  more  foul  play. 
So  with  his  half-brother  he  stayed  quietly  in  Uilca- 
pampa.  Their  first  visitor,  so  far  as  we  know,  was 
Diego  Rodriguez  de  Figueroa,  who  wrote  an  inter- 
esting account  of  Uiticos  and  says  he  gave  the  Inca 
a pair  of  scissors.  He  was  unsuccessful  in  his  efforts 
to  get  Titu  Cusi  to  go  to  Cuzco.  In  time  there  came 


YUCAY,  LAST  H0> 


OF  SAYRI  TUPAC 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS  187 

an  Augustinian  missionary,  Friar  Marcos  Garcia, 
who,  six  years  after  the  death  of  Sayri  Tupac,  en- 
tered the  rough  country  of  Uilcapampa,  “a  land  of 
moderate  wealth,  large  rivers,  and  the  usual  rains,” 
whose  “ forested  mountains,”  says  Father  Calancha, 
“are  magnificent.”  Friar  Marcos  had  a hard  jour- 
ney. The  bridges  were  down,  the  roads  had  been  de- 
stroyed, and  the  passes  blocked  up.  The  few  Indians 
who  did  occasionally  appear  in  Cuzco  from  Uilca- 
pampa said  the  friar  could  not  get  there  “unless  he 
should  be  able  to  change  himself  into  a bird.”  How- 
ever, with  that  courage  and  pertinacity  which  have 
marked  so  many  missionary  enterprises,  Friar 
Marcos  finally  overcame  all  difficulties  and  reached 
Uiticos. 

The  missionary  chronicler  says  that  Titu  Cusi 
was  far  from  glad  to  see  him  and  received  him 
angrily.  It  worried  him  to  find  that  a Spaniard  had 
succeeded  in  penetrating  his  retreat.  Besides,  the 
Inca  was  annoyed  to  have  any  one  preach  against 
his  “idolatries.”  Titu  Cusi’s  own  story,  as  written 
down  by  Friar  Marcos,  does  not  agree  with  Calan- 
cha’s.  Anyhow,  Friar  Marcos  built  a little  church 
in  a place  called  Puquiura,  where  many  of  the  Inca’s 
people  were  then  living.  “He  planted  crosses  in 
the  fields  and  on  the  mountains,  these  being  the 
best  things  to  frighten  off  devils.”  He  “suffered 
many  insults  at  the  hands  of  the  chiefs  and  princi- 
pal followers  of  the  Inca.  Some  of  them  did  it  to 
please  the  Devil,  others  to  flatter  the  Inca,  and 
many  because  they  disliked  his  sermons,  in  which 
he  scolded  them  for  their  vices  and  abominated 


1 88 


INCA  LAND 


among  his  converts  the  possession  of  four  or  six 
wives.  So  they  punished  him  in  the  matter  of  food, 
and  forced  him  to  send  to  Cuzco  for  victuals.  The 
Convent  sent  him  hard-tack,  which  was  for  him  a 
most  delicious  banquet.’ 1 

Within  a year  or  so  another  Augustinian  mission- 
ary, Friar  Diego  Ortiz,  left  Cuzco  alone  for  Uilca- 
pampa.  He  suffered  much  on  the  road,  but  finally 
reached  the  retreat  of  the  Inca  and  entered  his 
presence  in  company  with  Friar  Marcos.  “ Al- 
though the  Inca  was  not  too  happy  to  see  a new 
preacher,  he  was  willing  to  grant  him  an  entrance 
because  the  Inca  . . . thought  Friar  Diego  would 
not  vex  him  nor  take  the  trouble  to  reprove  him. 
So  the  Inca  gave  him  a license.  They  selected  the 
town  of  Huarancalla,  which  was  populous  and  well 
located  in  the  midst  of  a number  of  other  little  towns 
and  villages.  There  was  a distance  of  two  or  three 
days  journey  from  one  Convent  to  the  other.  Leav- 
ing Friar  Marcos  in  Puquiura,  Friar  Diego  went  to 
his  new  establishment  and  in  a short  time  built  a 
church,  a house  for  himself,  and  a hospital,  — all 
poor  buildings  made  in  a short  time.”  He  also 
started  a school  for  children,  and  became  very  popu- 
lar as  he  went  about  healing  and  teaching.  He  had 
an  easier  time  than  Friar  Marcos,  who,  with  less 
tact  and  no  skill  as  a physician,  was  located  nearer 
the  center  of  the  Inca  cult. 

The  principal  shrine  of  the  Inca  is  described  by 
Father  Calancha  as  follows:  “Close  to  Vitcos  [or 
Uiticos]  in  a village  called  Chuquipalpa,  is  a House 
of  the  Sun,  and  in  it  a white  rock  over  a spring  of 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS 


189 


water  where  the  Devil  appears  as  a visible  mani- 
festation and  was  worshipped  by  those  idolators. 
This  was  the  principal  mochadero  of  those  forested 
mountains.  The  word  1 mochadero 1 1 is  the  common 
name  which  the  Indians  apply  to  their  places  of 
worship.  In  other  words  it  is  the  only  place  where 
they  practice  the  sacred  ceremony  of  kissing.  The 
origin  of  this,  the  principal  part  of  their  ceremonial, 
is  that  very  practice  which  Job  abominates  when  he 
solemnly  clears  himself  of  all  offences  before  God 
and  says  to  Him:  ‘Lord,  all  these  punishments  and 
even  greater  burdens  would  I have  deserved  had  I 
done  that  which  the  blind  Gentiles  do  when  the  sun 
rises  resplendent  or  the  moon  shines  clear  and  they 
exult  in  their  hearts  and  extend  their  hands  toward 
the  sun  and  throw  kisses  to  it,'  an  act  of  very  grave 
iniquity  which  is  equivalent  to  denying  the  true 
God.” 

Thus  does  the  ecclesiastical  chronicler  refer  to  the 
practice  in  Peru  of  that  particular  form  of  worship 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  which  was  also  widely  spread 
in  the  East,  in  Arabia,  and  Palestine  and  was  in- 
veighed against  by  Mohammed  as  well  as  the 
ancient  Hebrew  prophets.  Apparently  this  cere- 
mony “of  the  most  profound  resignation  and  rever- 
ence” was  practiced  in  Chuquipalpa,  close  to  Uiti- 
cos,  in  the  reign  of  the  Inca  Titu  Cusi. 

Calancha  goes  on  to  say:  “In  this  white  stone  of 
the  aforesaid  House  of  the  Sun,  which  is  called 
Yurac  Rumi  [meaning,  in  Quichua,  a white  rock], 

XA  Spanish  derivative  from  the  Quichua  mucha,  “a  kiss.”  Mu - 
chani  means  “to  adore,  to  reverence,  to  kiss  the  hands.” 


190 


INCA  LAND 


there  attends  a Devil  who  is  Captain  of  a legion.  He 
and  his  legionaries  show  great  kindness  to  the  Indian 
idolators,  but  great  terrors  to  the  Catholics.  They 
abuse  with  hideous  cruelties  the  baptized  ones  who 
now  no  longer  worship  them  with  kisses,  and  many 
of  the  Indians  have  died  from  the  horrible  frights 
these  devils  have  given  them." 

One  day,  when  the  Inca  and  his  mother  and  their 
principal  chiefs  and  counselors  were  away  from 
Uiticos  on  a visit  to  some  of  their  outlying  estates, 
Friar  Marcos  and  Friar  Diego  decided  to  make  a 
spectacular  attack  on  this  particular  Devil,  who 
was  at  the  great  “white  rock  over  a spring  of  water." 
The  two  monks  summoned  all  their  converts  to 
gather  at  Puquiura,  in  the  church  or  the  neighboring 
plaza,  and  asked  each  to  bring  a stick  of  firewood 
in  order  that  they  might  burn  up  this  Devil  who 
had  tormented  them.  “An  innumerable  multitude" 
came  together  on  the  day  appointed.  The  con- 
verted Indians  were  most  anxious  to  get  even  with 
this  Devil  who  had  slain  their  friends  and  inflicted 
wounds  on  themselves;  the  doubters  were  curious 
to  see  the  result;  the  Inca  priests  were  there  to  see 
their  god  defeat  the  Christians’ ; while,  as  may  read- 
ily be  imagined,  the  rest  of  the  population  came  to 
see  the  excitement.  Starting  out  from  Puquiura  they 
marched  to  “ the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  in  the  village  of 
Chuquipalpa,  close  to  Uiticos." 

Arrived  at  the  sacred  palisade,  the  monks  raised 
the  standard  of  the  cross,  recited  their  orisons,  sur- 
rounded the  spring,  the  white  rock  and  the  Temple 
of  the  Sun,  and  piled  high  the  firewood.  Then,  hav- 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS 


191 

ing  exorcised  the  locality,  they  called  the  Devil  by 
all  the  vile  names  they  could  think  of,  to  show  their 
lack  of  respect,  and  finally  commanded  him  never 
to  return  to  this  vicinity.  Calling  on  Christ  and  the 
Virgin,  they  applied  fire  to  the  wood.  “The  poor 
Devil  then  fled  roaring  in  a fury,  and  making  the 
mountains  to  tremble.” 

It  took  remarkable  courage  on  the  part  of  the  two 
lone  monks  thus  to  desecrate  the  chief  shrine  of  the 
people  among  whom  they  were  dwelling.  It  is  almost 
incredible  that  in  this  remote  valley,  separated  from 
their  friends  and  far  from  the  protecting  hand  of  the 
Spanish  viceroy,  they  should  have  dared  to  commit 
such  an  insult  to  the  religion  of  their  hosts.  Of 
course,  as  soon  as  the  Inca  Titu  Cusi  heard  of  it, 
he  was  greatly  annoyed.  His  mother  was  furious. 
They  returned  immediately  to  Puquiura.  The  chiefs 
wished  to  “ slay  the  monks  and  tear  them  into  small 
pieces,”  and  undoubtedly  would  have  done  so  had  it 
not  been  for  the  regard  in  which  Friar  Diego  was 
held.  His  skill  in  curing  disease  had  so  endeared 
him  to  the  Indians  that  even  the  Inca  himself  dared 
not  punish  him  for  the  attack  on  the  Temple  of  the 
Sun.  Friar  Marcos,  however,  who  probably  origi- 
nated the  plan,  and  had  done  little  to  gain  the  good 
will  of  the  Indians,  did  not  fare  so  well.  Calancha 
says  he  was  stoned  out  of  the  province  and  the  Inca 
threatened  to  kill  him  if  he  ever  should  return. 
Friar  Diego,  particularly  beloved  by  those  Indians 
who  came  from  the  fever-stricken  jungles  in  the 
lower  valleys,  was  allowed  to  remain,  and  finally 
became  a trusted  friend  and  adviser  of  Titu  Cusi. 


192 


INCA  LAND 


One  day  a Spaniard  named  Romero,  an  adventur- 
ous prospector  for  gold,  was  found  penetrating  the 
mountain  valleys,  and  succeeded  in  getting  permis- 
sion from  the  Inca  to  see  what  minerals  were  there. 
He  was  too  successful.  Both  gold  and  silver  were 
found  among  the  hills  and  he  showed  enthusiastic 
delight  at  his  good  fortune.  The  Inca,  fearing  that 
his  reports  might  encourage  others  to  enter  Uilca- 
pampa,  put  the  unfortunate  prospector  to  death, 
notwithstanding  the  protestations  of  Friar  Diego. 
Foreigners  were  not  wanted  in  Uilcapampa. 

In  the  year  1570,  ten  years  after  the  accession  of 
Titu  Cusi  to  the  Inca  throne  in  Uiticos,  a new  Span- 
ish viceroy  came  to  Cuzco.  Unfortunately  for  the 
Incas,  Don  Francisco  de  Toledo,  an  indefatigable 
soldier  and  administrator,  was  excessively  bigoted, 
narrow-minded,  cruel,  and  pitiless.  Furthermore, 
Philip  II  and  his  Council  of  the  Indies  had  decided 
that  it  would  be  worth  while  to  make  every  effort 
to  get  the  Inca  out  of  Uiticos.  For  thirty-five  years 
the  Spanish  conquerors  had  occupied  Cuzco  and  the 
major  portion  of  Peru  without  having  been  able  to 
secure  the  submission  of  the  Indians  who  lived  in 
the  province  of  Uilcapampa.  It  would  be  a great 
feather  in  the  cap  of  Toledo  if  he  could  induce  Titu 
Cusi  to  come  and  live  where  he  would  always  be 
accessible  to  Spanish  authority. 

During  the  ensuing  rainy  season,  after  an  unusu- 
ally lively  party,  the  Inca  got  soaked,  had  a chill, 
and  was  laid  low.  In  the  meantime  the  viceroy  had 
picked  out  a Cuzco  soldier,  one  Tilano  de  Anaya, 
who  was  well  liked  by  the  Inca,  to  try  to  persuade 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS 


193 


Titu  Cusi  to  come  to  Cuzco.  Tilano  was  instructed 
to  go  by  way  of  Ollantaytambo  and  the  Chuqui- 
chaca  bridge.  Luck  was  against  him.  Titu  Cusi’s 
illness  was  very  serious.  Friar  Diego,  his  physician, 
had  prescribed  the  usual  remedies.  Unfortunately, 
all  the  monk’s  skill  was  unavailing  and  his  royal 
patient  died.  The  “remedies”  were  held  by  Titu 
Cusi’s  mother  and  her  counselors  to  be  responsible. 
The  poor  friar  had  to  suffer  the  penalty  of  death 
“for  having  caused  the  death  of  the  Inca.” 

The  third  son  of  Manco,  Tupac  Amaru,  brought 
up  as  a playfellow  of  the  Virgins  of  the  Sun  in  the 
Temple  near  Uiticos,  and  now  happily  married,  was 
selected  to  rule  the  little  kingdom.  His  brows  were 
decked  with  the  Scarlet  Fringe  of  Sovereignty,  but, 
thanks  to  the  jealous  fear  of  his  powerful  illegitimate 
brother,  his  training  had  not  been  that  of  a soldier. 
He  was  destined  to  have  a brief,  unhappy  existence. 
When  the  young  Inca’s  counselors  heard  that  a 
messenger  was  coming  from  the  viceroy,  seven  war- 
riors were  sent  to  meet  him  on  the  road.  Tilano  was 
preparing  to  spend  the  night  at  the  Chuquichaca 
bridge  when  he  was  attacked  and  killed. 

The  viceroy  heard  of  the  murder  of  his  ambassa- 
dor at  the  same  time  that  he  learned  of  the  martyr- 
dom of  Friar  Diego.  A blow  had  been  struck  at  the 
very  heart  of  Spanish  domination ; if  the  represent- 
atives of  the  Vice- Regent  of  Heaven  and  the  mes- 
sengers of  the  viceroy  of  Philip  II  were  not  invio- 
lable, then  who  was  safe?  On  Palm  Sunday  the 
energetic  Toledo,  surrounded  by  his  council,  deter- 
mined to  make  war  on  the  unfortunate  young  Tupac 


194 


INCA  LAND 


Amaru  and  give  a reward  to  the  soldier  who  would 
effect  his  capture.  The  council  was  of  the  opinion 
that  “many  Insurrections  might  be  raised  in  that 
Empire  by  this  young  Heir.”  “Moreover  it  was 
alledged,”  says  Garcilasso,  . . . “That  by  the  Im- 
prisonment of  the  Inca,  all  that  Treasure  might  be 
discovered,  which  appertained  to  former  kings, 
together  with  that  Chain  of  Gold,  which  Huayna 
Capac  commanded  to  be  made  for  himself  to  wear 
on  the  great  and  solemn  days  of  their  Festival”! 
Furthermore,  the  “ Chain  of  Gold  with  the  remain- 
ing Treasure  belong'd  to  his  Catholic  Majesty  by 
right  of  Conquest”!  Excuses  were  not  wanting. 
The  Incas  must  be  exterminated. 

The  expedition  was  divided  into  two  parts.  One 
company  was  sent  by  way  of  Limatambo  to  Cura- 
huasi,  to  head  off  the  Inca  in  case  he  should  cross 
the  Apurimac  and  try  to  escape  by  one  of  the  routes 
which  had  formerly  been  used  by  his  father,  Manco, 
in  his  marauding  expeditions.  The  other  company, 
under  General  Martin  Hurtado  and  Captain  Garcia, 
marched  from  Cuzco  by  way  of  Yucay  and  Ollantay- 
tambo.  They  were  more  fortunate  than  Captain 
Villadiego  whose  force,  thirty-five  years  before, 
had  been  met  and  destroyed  at  the  pass  of  Panti- 
calla.  That  was  in  the  days  of  the  active  Inca 
Manco.  Now  there  was  no  force  defending  this 
important  pass.  They  descended  the  Lucumayo  to 
its  junction  with  the  Urubamba  and  came  to  the 
bridge  of  Chuquichaca. 

The  narrow  suspension  bridge,  built  of  native 
fibers,  sagged  deeply  in  the  middle  and  swayed  so 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS 


*95 


threateningly  over  the  gorge  of  the  Urubamba  that 
only  one  man  could  pass  it  at  a time.  The  rapid  river 
was  too  deep  to  be  forded.  There  were  no  canoes. 
It  would  have  been  a difficult  matter  to  have  con- 
structed rafts,  for  most  of  the  trees  that  grow  here 
are  of  hard  wood  and  do  not  float.  On  the  other  side 
of  the  Urubamba  was  young  Tupac  Amaru,  sur- 
rounded by  his  councilors,  chiefs,  and  soldiers.  The 
first  hostile  forces  which  in  Pizarro’s  time  had  en- 
deavored to  fight  their  way  into  Uilcapampa  had 
never  been  allowed  by  Manco  to  get  as  far  as  this. 
His  youngest  son,  Tupac  Amaru,  had  had  no  experi- 
ence in  these  matters.  The  chiefs  and  nobles  had 
failed  to  defend  the  pass;  and  they  now  failed  to 
destroy  the  Chuquichaca  bridge,  apparently  relying 
on  their  ability  to  take  care  of  one  Spanish  soldier  at 
a time  and  prevent  the  Spaniards  from  crossing  the 
narrow,  swaying  structure.  General  Hurtado  was 
not  taking  any  such  chances.  He  had  brought  with 
him  one  or  two  light  mountain  field  pieces,  with 
which  the  raw  troops  of  the  Inca  were  little  ac- 
quainted. The  sides  of  the  valley  at  this  point  rise 
steeply  from  the  river  and  the  reverberations  caused 
by  gun  fire  would  be  fairly  terrifying  to  those  who 
had  never  heard  anything  like  it  before.  A few 
volleys  from  the  guns  and  the  arquebuses,  and  the 
Indians  fled  pellmell  in  every  direction,  leaving  the 
bridge  undefended. 

Captain  Garcia,  who  had  married  the  daughter 
of  Sayri  Tupac,  was  sent  in  pursuit  of  the  Inca. 
His  men  found  the  road  “ narrow  in  the  ascent,  with 
forest  on  the  right,  and  on  the  left  a ravine  of  great 


196 


INCA  LAND 


depth.”  It  was  only  a footpath,  barely  wide  enough 
for  two  men  to  pass.  Garcia,  with  customary  Span- 
ish bravery,  marched  at  the  head  of  his  company. 
Suddenly  out  of  the  thick  forest  an  Inca  chieftain 
named  Hualpa,  endeavoring  to  protect  the  flight  of 
Tupac  Amaru,  sprang  on  Garcia,  held  him  so  that 
he  could  not  get  at  his  sword  and  endeavored  to  hurl 
him  over  the  cliff.  The  captain’s  life  was  saved  by  a 
faithful  Indian  servant  who  was  following  immedi- 
ately behind  him,  carrying  his  sword.  Drawing  it 
from  the  scabbard  “with  much  dexterity  and  ani- 
mation,” the  Indian  killed  Hualpa  and  saved  his 
master’s  life. 

Garcia  fought  several  battles,  took  some  forts  and 
succeeded  in  capturing  many  prisoners.  From  them 
it  was  learned  that  the  Inca  had  “ gone  inland 
toward  the  valley  of  Simaponte;  and  that  he  was 
flying  to  the  country  of  the  Manaries  Indians,  a 
warlike  tribe  and  his  friends,  where  balsas  and 
canoes  were  posted  to  save  him  and  enable  him  to 
escape.”  Nothing  daunted  by  the  dangers  of  the 
jungle  nor  the  rapids  of  the  river,  Garcia  finally 
managed  to  construct  five  rafts,  on  which  he  put 
some  of  his  soldiers.  Accompanying  them  himself, 
he  descended  the  rapids,  escaping  death  many 
times  by  swimming,  and  finally  arrived  at  a place 
called  Momori,  only  to  find  that  the  Inca,  learning 
of  their  approach,  had  gone  farther  into  the  woods. 
Garcia  followed  hard  after,  although  he  and  his 
men  were  by  this  time  barefooted  and  suffering  from 
want  of  food.  They  finally  captured  the  Inca. 
Garcilasso  says  that  Tupac  Amaru,  “considering 


THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS 


197 


that  he  had  not  People  to  make  resistance,  and  that 
he  was  not  conscious  to  himself  of  any  Crime,  or 
disturbance  he  had  done  or  raised,  suffered  himself 
to  be  taken;  choosing  rather  to  entrust  himself  in 
the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  than  to  perish  in  those 
Mountains  with  Famine,  or  be  drowned  in  those 
great  Rivers.  . . . The  Spaniards  in  this  manner 
seizing  on  the  Inca,  and  on  all  the  Indian  Men  and 
Women,  who  were  in  Company  with  him,  amongst 
which  was  his  Wife,  two  Sons,  and  a Daughter, 
returned  with  them  in  Triumph  to  Cuzco;  to  which 
place  the  Vice-King  went,  so  soon  as  he  was  in- 
formed of  the  imprisonment  of  the  poor  Prince.” 
A mock  trial  was  held.  The  captured  chiefs  were 
tortured  to  death  with  fiendish  brutality.  Tupac 
Amaru’s  wife  was  mangled  before  his  eyes.  His 
own  head  was  cut  off  and  placed  on  a pole  in  the 
Cuzco  Plaza.  His  little  boys  did  not  long  survive. 
So  perished  the  last  of  the  Incas,  descendants  of  the 
wisest  Indian  rulers  America  has  ever  seen. 

BRIEF  SUMMARY  OF  THE  LAST  FOUR  INCAS 
1534.  The  Inca  Manco  ascends  the  throne  of  his  fathers. 

1536.  Manco  flees  from  Cuzco  to  Uiticos  and  Uilcapampa. 

1542.  Promulgation  of  the  “New  Laws.” 

1545.  Murder  of  Manco  and  accession  of  his  son  Sayri  Tupac. 
1555*  Sayri  Tupac  goes  to  Cuzco  and  Yucay. 

1560.  Death  of  Sayri  Tupac.  His  half  brother  Titu  Cusi  becomes 
Inca. 

1566.  Friar  Marcos  reaches  Uiticos.  Settles  in  Puquiura. 

1566.  Friar  Diego  joins  him. 

1568-9  (?).  They  burn  the  House  of  the  Sun  at  Yurac  Rumi  in 
Chuquipalpa. 

1571.  Titu  Cusi  dies.  Friar  Diego  suffers  martyrdom.  Tupac 
Amaru  becomes  Inca. 

1572.  Expedition  01  General  Martin  Hurtado  and  Captain 
Garcia  de  Loyola.  Execution  of  Tupac  Amaru, 


CHAPTER  X 

SEARCHING  FOR  THE  LAST  INCA  CAPITAL 


HE  events  described  in  the  preceding  chapter 


happened,  for  the  most  part,  in  Uiticos  1 and 
Uilcapampa,  northwest  of  Ollantaytambo,  about  one 
hundred  miles  away  from  the  Cuzco  palace  of  the 
Spanish  viceroy,  in  what  Prescott  calls  “the  remote 
fastnesses  of  the  Andes.”  One  looks  in  vain  for 
Uiticos  on  modern  maps  of  Peru,  although  several  of 
the  older  maps  give  it.  In  1625  “ Videos  ” is  marked 
on  de  Laet’s  map  of  Peru  as  a mountainous  province 
northeast  of  Lima  and  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
northwest  of  Vilcabamba!  This  error  was  copied  by 
some  later  cartographers,  including  Mercator,  until 
about  1740,  when  “ Videos  ” disappeared  from  all 
maps  of  Peru.  The  map  makers  had  learned  that 
there  was  no  such  place  in  that  vicinity.  Its  real 
location  was  lost  about  three  hundred  years  ago.  A 
map  published  at  Nuremberg  in  1599  gives  “Pincos” 
in  the  “Andes”  mountains,  a small  range  west  of 
“Cusco.”  This  does  not  seem  to  have  been  adopted 
by  other  cartographers;  although  a Paris  map  of  1739 
gives  “Picos”  in  about  the  same  place.  Nearly  all 
the  cartographers  of  the  eighteenth  century  who  give 
“Videos”  supposed  it  to  be  the  name  of  a tribe,  e.g., 
“Los  Videos”  or  “Les  Videos.” 

1 Uiticos  is  probably  derived  from  Uiticuni,  meaning  “to  withdraw 
to  a distance.” 


PART  OF  THE  NUREMBERG  MAP  OF  1599,  SHOWING  PINCOS  AND  THE  ANDES  MOUNTAINS 


THE  LAST  INCA  CAPITAL 


199 


The  largest  official  map  of  Peru,  the  work  of  that 
remarkable  explorer,  Raimondi,  who  spent  his  life 
crossing  and  recrossing  Peru,  does  not  contain  the 
word  Uiticos  nor  any  of  its  numerous  spellings, 
Viticos,  Vitcos,  Pitcos,  or  Biticos.  Incidentally,  it 
may  seem  strange  that  Uiticos  could  ever  be  written 
“Biticos.”  The  Quichua  language  has  no  sound  of 
V.  The  early  Spanish  writers,  however,  wrote  the 
capital  letter  U exactly  like  a capital  V.  In  official 
documents  and  letters  Uiticos  became  Viticos.  The 
official  readers,  who  had  never  heard  the  word  pro- 
nounced, naturally  used  the  V sound  instead  of  the 
U sound.  Both  V and  P easily  become  B.  So  Uiticos 
became  Biticos  and  Uilcapampa  became  Vilca- 
bamba. 

Raimondi’s  marvelous  energy  led  him  to  pene- 
trate to  more  out-of-the-way  Peruvian  villages  than 
any  one  had  ever  done  before  or  is  likely  to  do  agaim 
He  stopped  at  nothing  in  the  way  of  natural  obsta- 
cles. In  1865  he  went  deep  into  the  heart  of  Uilca- 
pampa; yet  found  no  Uiticos.  He  believed  that  the 
ruins  of  Choqquequirau  represented  the  residence 
of  the  last  Incas.  This  view  had  been  held  by  the 
French  explorer,  Count  de  Sartiges,  in  1834,  who 
believed  that  Choqquequirau  was  abandoned  when 
Sayri  Tupac,  Manco’s  oldest  son,  went  to  live  in 
Yucay.  Raimondi’s  view  was  also  held  by  the 
leading  Peruvian  geographers,  including  Paz  Soldan 
in  1877,  and  by  Prefect  Nunez  and  his  friends  in 
1909,  at  the  time  of  my  visit  to  Choqquequirau.1 
The  only  dissenter  was  the  learned  Peruvian  his- 
1 Described  in  “Across  South  America.*' 


200 


INCA  LAND 


torian,  Don  Carlos  Romero,  who  insisted  that  the 
last  Inca  capital  must  be  found  elsewhere.  He 
urged  the  importance  of  searching  for  Uiticos  in  the 
valleys  of  the  rivers  now  called  Vilcabamba  and 
Urubamba.  It  was  to  be  the  work  of  the  Yale 
Peruvian  Expedition  of  19x1  to  collect  the  geo- 
graphical evidence  which  would  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  chronicles  and  establish  the  where- 
abouts of  the  long-lost  Inca  capital. 

That  there  were  undescribed  and  unidentified 
ruins  to  be  found  in  the  Urubamba  Valley  was 
known  to  a few  people  in  Cuzco,  mostly  wealthy 
planters  who  had  large  estates  in  the  province  of 
Convendon.  One  told  us  that  he  went  to  Santa  Ana 
every  year  and  was  acquainted  with  a muleteer 
who  had  told  him  of  some  interesting  ruins  near  the 
San  Miguel  bridge.  Knowing  the  propensity  of  his 
countrymen  to  exaggerate,  however,  he  placed  little 
confidence  in  the  story  and,  shrugging  his  shoulders, 
had  crossed  the  bridge  a score  of  times  without 
taking  the  trouble  to  look  into  the  matter.  Another, 
Senor  Pancorbo,  whose  plantation  was  in  the  Vilca- 
bamba Valley,  said  that  he  had  heard  vague  rumors 
of  ruins  in  the  valley  above  his  plantation,  particu- 
larly near  Pucyura.  If  his  story  should  prove  to  be 
correct,  then  it  was  likely  that  this  might  be  the 
very  Puquiura  where  Friar  Marcos  had  established 
the  first  church  in  the  “province  of  Uilcapampa.” 
But  that  was  “ near  ” Uiticos  and  near  a village  called 
Chuquipalpa,  where  should  be  found  the  ruins  of  a 
Temple  of  the  Sun,  and  in  these  ruins  a “white  rock 
over  a spring  of  water.”  Yet  neither  these  friendly 


THE  LAST  INCA  CAPITAL 


201 


planters  nor  the  friends  among  whom  they  inquired 
had  ever  heard  of  Uiticos  or  a place  called  Chuqui- 
palpa,  or  of  such  an  interesting  rock;  nor  had  they 
themselves  seen  the  ruins  of  which  they  had  heard. 

One  of  Senor  Lomellini’s  friends,  a talkative  old 
fellow  who  had  spent  a large  part  of  his  life  in 
prospecting  for  mines  in  the  department  of  Cuzco, 
said  that  he  had  seen  ruins  “finer  than  Choqque- 
quirau”  at  a place  called  Huayna  Picchu;  but  he 
had  never  been  to  Choqquequirau.  Those  who  knew 
him  best  shrugged  their  shoulders  and  did  not  seem 
to  place  much  confidence  in  his  word.  Too  often  he 
had  been  over-enthusiastic  about  mines  which  did 
not  “pan  out.”  Yet  his  report  resembled  that  of 
Charles  Wiener,  a French  explorer,  who,  about  1875, 
in  the  course  of  his  wanderings  in  the  Andes,  visited 
Ollantaytambo.  While  there  he  was  told  that  there 
were  fine  ruins  down  the  Urubamba  Valley  at  a 
place  called  “ Huaina-Picchu  or  Matcho-Picchu.” 
He  decided  to  go  down  the  valley  and  look  for  these 
ruins.  According  to  his  text  he  crossed  the  Pass  of 
Panticalla,  descended  the  Lucumayo  River  to  the 
bridge  of  Choqquechacca,  and  visited  the  lower  Uru- 
bamba, returning  by  the  same  route.  He  published 
a detailed  map  of  the  valley.  To  one  of  its  peaks 
he  gives  the  name  “Huaynapicchu,  ele.  1815  m.” 
and  to  another  “ Matchopicchu,  ele.  1720  m.”  His 
interest  in  Inca  ruins  was  very  keen.  He  devotes 
pages  to  Ollantaytambo.  He  failed  to  reach  Machu 
Picchu  or  to  find  any  ruins  of  importance  in 
the  Urubamba  or  Vilcabamba  valleys.  Could  we 
hope  to  be  any  more  successful?  Would  the  rumors 


202 


INCA  LAND 


that  had  reached  us  “pan  out”  as  badly  as  those  to 
which  Wiener  had  listened  so  eagerly?  Since  his  day, 
to  be  sure,  the  Peruvian  Government  had  actually 
finished  a road  which  led  past  Machu  Picchu.  On 
the  other  hand,  a Harvard  Anthropological  Expedi- 
tion, under  the  leadership  of  Dr.  William  C.  Farra- 
bee,  had  recently  been  over  this  road  without  re- 
porting any  ruins  of  importance.  They  were  looking 
for  savages  and  not  ruins.  Nevertheless,  if  Machu 
Picchu  was  “finer  than  Choqquequirau”  why  had 
no  one  pointed  it  out  to  them? 

To  most  of  our  friends  in  Cuzco  the  idea  that 
there  could  be  anything  finer  than  Choqquequi- 
rau seemed  absurd.  They  regarded  that  “cradle  of 
gold”  as  “the  most  remarkable  archeological  dis- 
covery of  recent  times.”  They  assured  us  there  was 
nothing  half  so  good.  They  even  assumed  that  we 
were  secretly  planning  to  return  thither  to  dig  for 
buried  treasure!  Denials  were  of  no  avail.  To  a peo- 
ple whose  ancestors  made  fortunes  out  of  lucky 
“strikes,”  and  who  themselves  have  been  brought 
up  on  stories  of  enormous  wealth  still  remaining  to 
be  discovered  by  some  fortunate  excavator,  the  ques- 
tion of  tesoro  — treasure,  wealth,  riches  — is  an  ever- 
present source  of  conversation.  Even  the  prefect 
of  Cuzco  was  quite  unable  to  conceive  of  my  doing 
anything  for  the  love  of  discovery.  He  was  con- 
vinced that  I should  find  great  riches  at  Choqque- 
quirau — and  that  I was  in  receipt  of  a very  large 
salary!  He  refused  to  believe  that  the  members  of 
the  Expedition  received  no  more  than  their  expenses. 
He  told  me  confidentially  that  Professor  Foote 


THE  LAST  INCA  CAPITAL 


203 


would  sell  his  collection  of  insects  for  at  least 
$10,000!  Peruvians  have  not  been  accustomed 
to  see  any  one  do  scientific  work  except  as  he  was 
paid  by  the  government  or  employed  by  a railroad 
or  mining  company.  We  have  frequently  found  our 
work  misunderstood  and  regarded  with  suspicion, 
even  by  the  Cuzco  Historical  Society. 

The  valley  of  the  Urubamba,  or  Uilcamayu,  as  it 
used  to  be  called,  may  be  reached  from  Cuzco  in 
several  ways.  The  usual  route  for  those  going  to 
Yucay  is  northwest  from  the  city,  over  the  great 
Andean  highway,  past  the  slopes  of  Mt.  Seneca. 
At  Ttica-Ttica  (12,000  ft.)  the  road  crosses  the 
lowest  pass  at  the  western  end  of  the  Cuzco  Basin. 
At  the  last  point  from  which  one  can  see  the  city  of 
Cuzco,  all  true  Indians,  whether  on  their  way  out  of 
the  valley  or  into  it,  pause,  turn  toward  the  east, 
facing  the  city,  remove  their  hats  and  mutter  a 
prayer.  I believe  that  the  words  they  use  now  are 
those  of  the  11  Ave  Maria,11  or  some  other  familiar 
orison  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Nevertheless,  the 
custom  undoubtedly  goes  far  back  of  the  advent  of 
the  first  Spanish  missionaries.  It  is  probably  a relic 
of  the  ancient  habit  of  worshiping  the  rising  sun. 
During  the  centuries  immediately  preceding  the 
conquest,  the  city  of  Cuzco  was  the  residence  of  the 
Inca  himself,  that  divine  individual  who  was  at 
once  the  head  of  Church  and  State.  Nothing  would 
have  been  more  natural  than  for  persons  coming  in 
sight  of  his  residence  to  perform  an  act  of  venera- 
tion. This  in  turn  might  have  led  those  leaving  the 


204 


INCA  LAND 


city  to  fall  into  the  same  habit  at  the  same  point  in 
the  road.  I have  watched  hundreds  of  travelers  pass 
this  point.  None  of  those  whose  European  costume 
proclaimed  a white  or  mixed  ancestry  stopped  to 
pray  or  make  obeisance.  On  the  other  hand,  all 
those,  without  exception,  who  were  clothed  in  a 
native  costume,  which  betokened  that  they  con- 
sidered themselves  to  be  Indians  rather  than  whites, 
paused  for  a moment,  gazing  at  the  ancient  city, 
removed  their  hats,  and  said  a short  prayer. 

Leaving  Ttica-Ttica,  we  went  northward  for 
several  leagues,  passed  the  town  of  Chincheros,  with 
its  old  Inca  walls,  and  came  at  length  to  the  edge  of 
the  wonderful  valley  of  Yucay.  In  its  bottom  are 
great  level  terraces  rescued  from  the  Urubamba 
River  by  the  untiring  energy  of  the  ancient  folk.  On 
both  sides  of  the  valley  the  steep  slopes  bear  many 
remains  of  narrow  terraces,  some  of  which  are  still 
in  use.  Above  them  are  “ temporaries  ” fields  of 
grain,  resting  like  a patch- work  quilt  on  slopes  so 
steep  it  seems  incredible  they  could  be  cultivated. 
Still  higher  up,  their  heads  above  the  clouds,  are 
the  jagged  snow-capped  peaks.  The  whole  offers  a 
marvelous  picture,  rich  in  contrast,  majestic  in  pro- 
portion. In  Yucay  once  dwelt  the  Inca  Manco’s  old- 
est son,  Sayri  Tupac,  after  he  had  accepted  the  vice- 
roy’s invitation  to  come  under  Spanish  protection. 
Here  he  lived  three  years  and  here,  in  1560,  he  died 
an  untimely  death  under  circumstances  which  led 
his  brothers,  Titu  Cusi  and  Tupac  Amaru,  to  think 
that  they  would  be  safer  in  Uiticos.  We  spent  the 
night  in  Urubamba,  the  modern  capital  of  the  prov- 


THE  LAST  INCA  CAPITAL 


205 


ince,  much  favored  by  Peruvians  of  to-day  because 
of  its  abundant  water  supply,  delightful  climate, 
and  rich  fruits.  Cuzco,  11,000  feet,  is  too  high  to 
have  charming  surroundings,  but  two  thousand  feet 
lower,  in  the  Urubamba  Valley,  there  is  everything 
to  please  the  eye  and  delight  the  horticulturist. 

Speaking  of  horticulturists  reminds  me  of  their 
enemies.  Uru  is  the  Quichua  word  for  caterpillars  or 
grubs,  pampa  means  flat  land.  Urubamba  is  “ flat- 
land-where-there-are-grubs-or-caterpillars.”  Had  it 
been  named  by  people  who  came  up  from  a warm 
region  where  insects  abound,  it  would  hardly  have 
been  so  denominated.  Only  people  not  accustomed 
to  land  where  caterpillars  and  grubs  flourished  would 
have  been  struck  by  such  a circumstance.  Conse- 
quently, the  valley  was  probably  named  by  plateau 
dwellers  who  were  working  their  way  down  into  a 
warm  region  where  butterflies  and  moths  are  more 
common.  Notwithstanding  its  celebrated  cater- 
pillars, Urubamba’s  gardens  of  to-day  are  full  of 
roses,  lilies,  and  other  brilliant  flowers.  There  are 
orchards  of  peaches,  pears,  and  apples;  there  are 
fields  where  luscious  strawberries  are  raised  for  the 
Cuzco  market.  Apparently,  the  grubs  do  not  get 
everything. 

The  next  day  down  the  valley  brought  us  to 
romantic  Ollantaytambo,  described  in  glowing 
terms  by  Castelnau,  Marcou,  Wiener,  and  Squier 
many  years  ago.  It  has  lost  none  of  its  charm,  even 
though  Marcou’s  drawings  are  imaginary  and 
Squier’s  are  exaggerated.  Here,  as  at  Urubamba, 
there  are  flower  gardens  and  highly  cultivated  green 


206 


INCA  LAND 


fields.  The  brooks  are  shaded  by  willows  and  pop- 
lars. Above  them  are  magnificent  precipices  crowned 
by  snow-capped  peaks.  The  village  itself  was  once 
the  capital  of  an  ancient  principality  whose  history 
is  shrouded  in  mystery.  There  are  ruins  of.  curious 
gabled  buildings,  storehouses,  “prisons,”  or  “mon- 
asteries,” perched  here  and  there  on  well-nigh  in- 
accessible crags  above  the  village.  Below  are  broad 
terraces  of  unbelievable  extent  where  abundant 
crops  are  still  harvested;  terraces  which  will  stand 
for  ages  to  come  as  monuments  to  the  energy  and 
skill  of  a bygone  race.  The  “fortress”  is  on  a little 
hill,  surrounded  by  steep  cliffs,  high  walls,  and  hang- 
ing gardens  so  as  to  be  difficult  of  access.  Centuries 
ago,  when  the  tribe  which  cultivated  the  rich  fields 
in  this  valley  lived  in  fear  and  terror  of  their  savage 
neighbors,  this  hill  offered  a place  of  refuge  to  which 
they  could  retire.  It  may  have  been  fortified  at  that 
time.  As  centuries  passed  in  which  the  land  came 
under  the  control  of  the  Incas,  whose  chief  interest 
was  the  peaceful  promotion  of  agriculture,  it  is 
likely  that  this  fortress  became  a royal  garden.  The 
six  great  ashlars  of  reddish  granite  weighing  fifteen 
or  twenty  tons  each,  and  placed  in  line  on  the  sum- 
mit of  the  hill,  were  brought  from  a quarry  several 
miles  away  with  an  immense  amount  of  labor  and 
pains.  They  were  probably  intended  to  be  a record 
of  the  magnificence  of  an  able  ruler.  Not  only  could 
he  command  the  services  of  a sufficient  number  of 
men  to  extract  these  rocks  from  the  quarry  and 
carry  them  up  an  inclined  plane  from  the  bottom 
of  the  valley  to  the  summit  of  the  hill;  he  had  to 


MT.  VERONICA  AND  SALAPUNCO,  THE  GATEWAY  TO 
UILCAPAMPA 


THE  LAST  INCA  CAPITAL 


20/ 


supply  the  men  with  food.  The  building  of  such  a 
monument  meant  taking  five  hundred  Indians  away 
from  their  ordinary  occupations  as  agriculturists. 
He  must  have  been  a very  good  administrator.  To 
his  people  the  magnificent  megaliths  were  doubtless 
a source  of  pride.  To  his  enemies  they  were  a sym- 
bol of  his  power  and  might. 

A league  below  Ollantaytambo  the  road  forks. 
The  right  branch  ascends  a steep  valley  and  crosses 
the  pass  of  Panticalla  near  snow-covered  Mt.  Veron- 
ica. Near  the  pass  are  two  groups  of  ruins.  One  of 
them,  extravagantly  referred  to  by  Wiener  as  a 
“ granite  palace,  whose  appearance  [appareil]  re- 
sembles the  more  beautiful  parts  of  Ollantaytambo,” 
was  only  a storehouse.  The  other  was  probably  a 
tampu,  or  inn,  for  the  benefit  of  official  travelers. 
All  travelers  in  Inca  times,  even  the  bearers  of 
burdens,  were  acting  under  official  orders.  Com- 
mercial business  was  unknown.  The  rights  of  per- 
sonal property  were  not  understood.  No  one  had 
anything  to  sell;  no  one  had  any  money  to  buy  it 
with.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Incas  had  an  elaborate 
system  of  tax  collecting.  Two  thirds  of  the  produce 
raised  by  their  subjects  was  claimed  by  the  civil  and 
religious  rulers.  It  was  a reasonable  provision  of  the 
benevolent  despotism  of  the  Incas  that  inhospitable 
regions  like  the  Panticalla  Pass  near  Mt.  Veronica 
should  be  provided  with  suitable  rest  houses  and 
storehouses.  Polo  de  Ondegardo,  an  able  and  ac- 
complished statesman,  who  was  in  office  in  Cuzco 
in  1560,  says  that  the  food  of  the  chasquis,  Inca  post 
runners,  was  provided  from  official  storehouses; 


208 


INCA  LAND 


1 1 those  who  worked  for  the  Inca’s  service,  or  for  re- 
ligion, never  ate  at  their  own  expense.”  In  Manco’s 
day  these  buildings  at  Havaspampa  probably  shel- 
tered the  outpost  which  defeated  Captain  Villadiego. 

Before  the  completion  of  the  river  road,  about 
1895,  travelers  from  Cuzco  to  the  lower  Urubamba 
had  a choice  of  two  routes,  one  by  way  of  the  pass 
of  Panticalla,  followed  by  Captain  Garcia  in  1571, 
by  General  Miller  in  1835,  Castelnau  in  1842,  and 
Wiener  in  1875 ; and  one  by  way  of  the  pass  between 
Mts.  Salcantay  and  Soray,  along  the  Salcantay 
River  to  Huadquina,  followed  by  the  Count  de 
Sartiges  in  1834  and  Raimondi  in  1865.  Both  of 
these  routes  avoid  the  highlands  between  Mt.  Sal- 
cantay and  Mt.  Veronica  and  the  lowlands  between 
the  villages  of  Piri  and  Huadquina.  This  region  was 
in  1911  undescribed  in  the  geographical  literature  of 
southern  Peru.  We  decided  not  to  use  either  pass, 
but  to  go  straight  down  the  Urubamba  river  road. 
It  led  us  into  a fascinating  country. 

Two  leagues  beyond  Piri,  at  Salapunco,  the  road 
skirts  the  base  of  precipitous  cliffs,  the  begin- 
nings of  a wonderful  mass  of  granite  mountains 
which  have  made  Uilcapampa  more  difficult  of 
access  than  the  surrounding  highlands  which  are 
composed  of  schists,  conglomerates,  and  limestone. 
Salapunco  is  the  natural  gateway  to  the  ancient 
province,  but  it  was  closed  for  centuries  by  the  com- 
bined efforts  of  nature  and  man.  The  Urubamba 
River,  in  cutting  its  way  through  the  granite  range, 
forms  rapids  too  dangerous  to  be  passable  and 
precipices  which  can  be  scaled  only  with  great  effort 


THE  LAST  INCA  CAPITAL 


209 


and  considerable  peril.  At  one  time  a footpath 
probably  ran  near  the  river,  where  the  Indians,  by 
crawling  along  the  face  of  the  cliff  and  sometimes 
swinging  from  one  ledge  to  another  on  hanging 
vines,  were  able  to  make  their  way  to  any  of  the 
alluvial  terraces  down  the  valley.  Another  path  may 
have  gone  over  the  cliffs  above  the  fortress,  where 
we  noticed,  in  various  inaccessible  places,  the  re- 
mains of  walls  built  on  narrow  ledges.  They  were  too 
narrow  and  too  irregular  to  have  been  intended  to 
support  agricultural  terraces.  They  may  have  been 
built  to  make  the  cliff  more  precipitous.  They  prob- 
ably represent  the  foundations  of  an  old  trail.  To 
defend  these  ancient  paths  we  found  that  prehistoric 
man  had  built,  at  the  foot  of  the  precipices,  close 
to  the  river,  a small  but  powerful  fortress  whose 
ruins  now  pass  by  the  name  of  Salapunco ; sala  = 
ruins;  punco  — gateway.  Fashioned  after  famous 
Sacsahuaman  and  resembling  it  in  the  irregular 
character  of  the  large  ashlars  and  also  by  reason 
of  the  salients  and  reentrant  angles  which  enabled 
its  defenders  to  prevent  the  walls  being  successfully 
scaled,  it  presents  an  interesting  problem. 

Commanding  as  it  does  the  entrance  to  the  valley 
of  Torontoy,  Salapunco  may  have  been  built  by 
some  ancient  chief  to  enable  him  to  levy  tribute  on 
all  who  passed.  My  first  impression  was  that  the 
fortress  was  placed  here,  at  the  end  of  the  temperate 
zone,  to  defend  the  valleys  of  Urubamba  and  Ollan- 
taytambo  against  savage  enemies  coming  up  from 
the  forests  of  the  Amazon.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
possible  that  Salapunco  was  built  by  the  tribes 


210 


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occupying  the  fastnesses  of  Uilcapampa  as  an  out- 
post to  defend  them  against  enemies  coming  down 
the  valley  from  the  direction  of  Ollantaytambo. 
They  could  easily  have  held  it  against  a consider- 
able force,  for  it  is  powerfully  built  and  constructed 
with  skill.  Supplies  from  the  plantations  of  Toron- 
toy,  lower  down  the  river,  might  have  reached  it 
along  the  path  which  antedated  the  present  govern- 
ment road.  Salapunco  may  have  been  occupied  by 
the  troops  of  the  Inca  Manco  when  he  established 
himself  in  Uiticos  and  ruled  over  Uilcapampa.  He 
could  hardly,  however,  have  built  a megalithic  work 
of  this  kind.  It  is  more  likely  that  he  would  have 
destroyed  the  narrow  trails  than  have  attempted  to 
hold  the  fort  against  the  soldiers  of  Pizarro.  Further- 
more, its  style  and  character  seem  to  date  it  with 
the  well-known  megalithic  structures  of  Cuzco  and 
Ollantaytambo.  This  makes  it  seem  all  the  more 
extraordinary  that  Salapunco  could  ever  have  been 
built  as  a defense  against  Ollantaytambo,  unless  it 
was  built  by  folk  who  once  occupied  Cuzco  and  who 
later  found  a retreat  in  the  canyons  below  here. 

When  we  first  visited  Salapunco  no  megalithic  re- 
mains had  been  reported  as  far  down  the  valley  as 
this.  It  never  occurred  to  us  that,  in  hunting  for  the 
remains  of  such  comparatively  recent  structures  as 
the  Inca  Manco  had  the  force  and  time  to  build,  we 
were  to  discover  remains  of  a far  more  remote  past. 
Yet  we  were  soon  to  find  ruins  enough  to  explain  why 
such  a fortress  as  Salapunco  might  possibly  have 
been  built  so  as  to  defend  Uilcapampa  against 
Ollantaytambo  and  Cuzco  and  not  those  well- 


GROSVENOR  GLACIER  AND  MT.  SALCANTAY 


THE  LAST  INCA  CAPITAL 


211 


known  Inca  cities  against  the  savages  of  the  Ama- 
zon jungles. 

Passing  Salapunco,  we  skirted  granite  cliffs  and 
precipices  and  entered  a most  interesting  region, 
where  we  were  surprised  and  charmed  by  the  extent 
of  the  ancient  terraces,  their  length  and  height,  the 
presence  of  many  Inca  ruins,  the  beauty  of  the  deep, 
narrow  valleys,  and  the  grandeur  of  the  snow-clad 
mountains  which  towered  above  them.  Across  the 
river,  near  Qquente,  on  top  of  a series  of  terraces,  we 
saw  the  extensive  ruins  of  Patallacta  (pata  = height 
or  terrace;  llacta  = town  or  city),  an  Inca  town 
of  great  importance.  It  was  not  known  to  Rai- 
mondi or  Paz  Soldan,  but  is  indicated  on  Wiener’s 
map,  although  he  does  not  appear  to  have  visited  it. 
We  have  been  unable  to  find  any  reference  to  it 
in  the  chronicles.  We  spent  several  months  here  in 
1915  excavating  and  determining  the  character  of 
the  ruins.  In  another  volume  I hope  to  tell  more 
of  the  antiquities  of  this  region.  At  present  it  must 
suffice  to  remark  that  our  explorations  near  Pata- 
llacta disclosed  no  “white  rock  over  a spring  of 
water.”  None  of  the  place  names  in  this  vicinity  fit 
in  with  the  accounts  of  Uiticos.  Their  identity  re- 
mains a puzzle,  although  the  symmetry  of  the  build- 
ings, their  architectural  idiosyncrasies  such  as  niches, 
stone  roof-pegs,  bar-holds,  and  eye-bonders,  indicate 
an  Inca  origin.  At  what  date  these  towns  and  vil- 
lages flourished,  who  built  them,  why  they  were  de- 
serted, we  do  not  yet  know;  and  the  Indians  who  live 
hereabouts  are  ignorant,  or  silent,  as  to  their  history. 

At  Torontoy,  the  end  of  the  cultivated  temperate 


212 


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valley,  we  found  another  group  of  interesting  ruins, 
possibly  once  the  residence  of  an  Inca  chief.  In  a 
cave  near  by  we  secured  some  mummies.  The  an- 
cient wrappings  had  been  consumed  by  the  natives 
in  an  effort  to  smoke  out  the  vampire  bats  that 
lived  in  the  cave.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river 
are  extensive  terraces  and  above  them,  on  a hilltop, 
other  ruins  first  visited  by  Messrs.  Tucker  and 
Hendriksen  in  1911.  One  of  their  Indian  bearers, 
attempting  to  ford  the  rapids  here  with  a large  sur- 
veying instrument,  was  carried  off  his  feet,  swept 
away  by  the  strong  current,  and  drowned  before 
help  could  reach  him. 

Near  Torontoy  is  a densely  wooded  valley  called 
the  Pampa  Ccahua.  In  1915  rumors  of  Andean  or 
“ spectacled”  bears  having  been  seen  here  and  of 
damage  having  been  done  by  them  to  some  of  the 
higher  crops,  led  us  to  go  and  investigate.  We  found 
no  bears,  but  at  an  elevation  of  12,000  feet  were 
some  very  old  trees,  heavily  covered  with  flowering 
moss  not  hitherto  known  to  science.  Above  them 
I was  so  fortunate  as  to  find  a wild  potato  plant,  the 
source  from  which  the  early  Peruvians  first  devel- 
oped many  varieties  of  what  we  incorrectly  call  the 
Irish  potato.  The  tubers  were  as  large  as  peas. 

Mr.  Heller  found  here  a strange  little  cousin  of 
the  kangaroo,  a near  relative  of  the  coenolestes.  It 
turned  out  to  be  new  to  science.  To  find  a new 
genus  of  mammalian  quadrupeds  was  an  event 
which  delighted  Mr.  Heller  far  more  than  shooting 
a dozen  bears.1 

1 On  the  1915  Expedition  Mr.  Heller  captured  twelve  new  species 


THE  LAST  INCA  CAPITAL 


213 


Torontoy  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  Grand  Canyon 
of  the  Urubamba,  and  such  a canyon!  The  river 
1 ‘road”  runs  recklessly  up  and  down  rock  stairways, 
blasts  its  way  beneath  overhanging  precipices, 
spans  chasms  on  frail  bridges  propped  on  rustic 
brackets  against  granite  cliffs.  Under  dense  forests, 
wherever  the  encroaching  precipices  permitted  it, 
the  land  between  them  and  the  river  was  once  ter- 
raced and  cultivated.  We  found  ourselves  unexpect- 
edly in  a veritable  wonderland.  Emotions  came  thick 
and  fast.  We  marveled  at  the  exquisite  pains  with 
which  the  ancient  folk  had  rescued  incredibly  nar- 
row strips  of  arable  land  from  the  tumbling  rapids. 
How  could  they  ever  have  managed  to  build  a re- 
taining wall  of  heavy  stones  along  the  very  edge  of 
the  dangerous  river,  which  it  is  death  to  attempt  to 
cross!  On  one  sightly  bend  near  a foaming  waterfall 
some  Inca  chief  built  a temple,  whose  walls  tantalize 
the  traveler.  He  must  pass  by  within  pistol  shot  of 
the  interesting  ruins,  unable  to  ford  the  intervening 
rapids.  High  up  on  the  side  of  the  canyon,  five 
thousand  feet  above  this  temple,  are  the  ruins  of 
Corihuayrachina ( kori  = “ gold  ” ; huayara  = “wind ” ; 
huayrachina  =“a  threshing-floor  where  winnowing 
takes  place.”  Possibly  this  was  an  ancient  gold 
mine  of  the  Incas.  Half  a mile  above  us  on  another 
steep  slope,  some  modern  pioneer  had  recently 
cleared  the  jungle  from  a fine  series  of  ancient  arti- 
ficial terraces. 

of  mammals,  but,  as  Mr.  Oldfield  Thomas  says:  "Of  all  the  novelties, 
by  far  the  most  interesting  is  the  new  Marsupial.  . . . Members  of 
the  family  were  previously  known  from  Colombia  and  Ecuador.” 
Mr.  Heller’s  discovery  greatly  extends  the  recent  range  of  the 
kangaroo  family. 


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INCA  LAND 


On  the  afternoon  of  July  23d  we  reached  a hut 
called  11  La  Maquina  ,”  where  travelers  frequently 
stop  for  the  night.  The  name  comes  from  the  pres- 
ence here  of  some  large  iron  wheels,  parts  of  a 
“machine”  destined  never  to  overcome  the  diffi- 
culties of  being  transported  all  the  way  to  a sugar 
estate  in  the  lower  valley,  and  years  ago  left  here  to 
rust  in  the  jungle.  There  was  little  fodder,  and 
there  was  no  good  place  for  us  to  pitch  our  camp, 
so  we  pushed  on  over  the  very  difficult  road,  which 
had  been  carved  out  of  the  face  of  a great  granite 
cliff.  Part  of  the  cliff  had  slid  off  into  the  river  and 
the  breach  thus  made  in  the  road  had  been  repaired 
by  means  of  a frail-looking  rustic  bridge  built  on 
a bracket  composed  of  rough  logs,  branches,  and 
reeds,  tied  together  and  surmounted  by  a few  inches 
of  earth  and  pebbles  to  make  it  seem  sufficiently 
safe  to  the  cautious  cargo  mules  who  picked  their 
way  gingerly  across  it.  No  wonder  “the  machine” 
rested  where  it  did  and  gave  its  name  to  that  part 
of  the  valley. 

Dusk  falls  early  in  this  deep  canyon,  the  sides  of 
which  are  considerably  over  a mile  in  height.  It  was 
almost  dark  when  we  passed  a little  sandy  plain  two 
or  three  acres  in  extent,  which  in  this  land  of  steep 
mountains  is  called  a pampa . Were  the  dwellers  on 
the  pampas  of  Argentina  — where  a railroad  can  go 
for  250  miles  in  a straight  line,  except  for  the  curva- 
ture of  the  earth  — to  see  this  little  bit  of  flood-plain 
called  Mandor  Pampa,  they  would  think  some  one 
had  been  joking  or  else  grossly  misusing  a word 
which  means  to  them  illimitable  space  with  not  a 


THE  ROAD  BETWEEN  MAQUINA  AND  MANDOR  PAM  PA 
NEAR  MACHU  PICCHU 


THE  LAST  INCA  CAPITAL 


215 


hill  in  sight.  However,  to  the  ancient  dwellers  in 
this  valley,  where  level  land  was  so  scarce  that  it 
was  worth  while  to  build  high  stone-faced  terraces 
so  as  to  enable  two  rows  of  corn  to  grow  where  none 
grew  before,  any  little  natural  breathing  space  in 
the  bottom  of  the  canyon  is  called  a pampa. 

We  passed  an  ill-kept,  grass-thatched  hut,  turned 
off  the  road  through  a tiny  clearing,  and  made 
our  camp  at  the  edge  of  the  river  Urubamba  on  a 
sandy  beach.  Opposite  us,  beyond  the  huge  granite 
boulders  which  interfered  with  the  progress  of  the 
surging  stream,  was  a steep  mountain  clothed  with 
thick  jungle.  It  was  an  ideal  spot  for  a camp,  near 
the  road  and  yet  secluded.  Our  actions,  however, 
aroused  the  suspicions  of  the  owner  of  the  hut, 
Melchor  Arteaga,  who  leases  the  lands  of  Mandor 
Pampa.  He  was  anxious  to  know  why  we  did  not 
stay  at  his  hut  like  respectable  travelers.  Our  gen- 
darme, Sergeant  Carrasco,  reassured  him.  They  had 
quite  a long  conversation.  When  Arteaga  learned 
that  we  were  interested  in  the  architectural  remains 
of  the  Incas,  he  said  there  were  some  very  good 
ruins  in  this  vicinity  — in  fact,  some  excellent  ones 
on  top  of  the  opposite  mountain,  called  Huayna 
Picchu,  and  also  on  a ridge  called  Machu  Picchu. 
These  were  the  very  places  Charles  Wiener  heard  of 
at  Ollantaytambo  in  1875  and  had  been  unable  to 
reach.  The  story  of  my  experiences  on  the  following 
day  will  be  found  in  a later  chapter.  Suffice  it  to  say 
at  this  point  that  the  ruins  of  Huayna  Picchu 
turned  out  to  be  of  very  little  importance,  while 
those  of  Machu  Picchu,  familiar  to  readers  of  the 


21 6 


INCA  LAND 


“National  Geographic  Magazine,”  are  as  interesting 
as  any  ever  found  in  the  Andes. 

When  I first  saw  the  remarkable  citadel  of  Machu 
Picchu  perched  on  a narrow  ridge  two  thousand  feet 
above  the  river,  I wondered  if  it  could  be  the  place 
to  which  that  old  soldier,  Baltasar  de  Ocampo,  a 
member  of  Captain  Garcia’s  expedition,  was  re- 
ferring when  he  said:  “The  Inca  Tupac  Amaru  was 
there  in  the  fortress  of  Pitcos  [Uiticos],  which  is  on  a 
very  high  mountain,  whence  the  view  commanded 
a great  part  of  the  province  of  Uilcapampa.  Here 
there  was  an  extensive  level  space,  with  very 
sumptuous  and  majestic  buildings,  erected  with 
great  skill  and  art,  all  the  lintels  of  the  doors,  the 
principal  as  well  as  the  ordinary  ones,  being  of 
marble,  elaborately  carved.”  Could  it  be  that 
“ Picchu”  was  the  modern  variant  of  “ Pitcos”?  To 
be  sure,  the  white  granite  of  which  the  temples  and 
palaces  of  Machu  Picchu  are  constructed  might 
easily  pass  for  marble.  The  difficulty  about  fitting 
Ocampo’s  description  to  Machu  Picchu,  however, 
was  that  there  was  no  difference  between  the  lintels 
of  the  doors  and  the  walls  themselves.  Furthermore, 
there  is  no  “white  rock  over  a spring  of  water” 
which  Calancha  says  was  “near  Uiticos.”  There  is 
no  Pucyura  in  this  neighborhood.  In  fact,  the  can- 
yon of  the  Urubamba  does  not  satisfy  the  geographi- 
cal requirements  of  Uiticos.  Although  containing 
ruins  of  surpassing  interest,  Machu  Picchu  did  not 
represent  that  last  Inca  capital  for  which  we  were 
searching.  We  had  not  yet  found  Manco's  palace. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  SEARCH  CONTINUED 

MACHU  PICCHU  is  on  the  border-line  be- 
tween the  temperate  zone  and  the  tropics. 
Camping  near  the  bridge  of  San  Miguel,  below  the 
ruins,  both  Mr.  Heller  and  Mr.  Cook  found  inter- 
esting evidences  of  this  fact  in  the  flora  and  fauna. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  historical  geography,  Mr. 
Cook’s  most  important  discovery  was  the  presence 
here  of  huilca , a tree  which  does  not  grow  in  cold 
climates.  The  Quichua  dictionaries  tell  us  huilca  is  a 
“medicine,  a purgative.”  An  infusion  made  from 
the  seeds  of  the  tree  is  used  as  an  enema.  I am  in- 
debted to  Mr.  Cook  for  calling  my  attention  to  two 
articles  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Salford  in  which  it  is  also 
shown  that  from  seeds  of  the  huilca  a powder  is 
prepared,  sometimes  called  cohoba . This  powder, 
says  Mr.  Safford,  is  a narcotic  snuff  “inhaled 
through  the  nostrils  by  means  of  a bifurcated  tube.” 
“All  writers  unite  in  declaring  that  it  induced  a 
kind  of  intoxication  or  hypnotic  state,  accompanied 
by  visions  which  were  regarded  by  the  natives  as 
supernatural.  While  under  its  influence  the  necro- 
mancers, or  priests,  were  supposed  to  hold  communi- 
cation with  unseen  powers,  and  their  incoherent 
mutterings  were  regarded  as  prophecies  or  revela- 
tions of  hidden  things.  In  treating  the  sick  the 
physicians  made  use  of  it  to  discover  the  cause  of 
the  malady  or  the  person  or  spirit  by  whom  the 


218 


INCA  LAND 


patient  was  bewitched.”  Mr.  Safford  quotes  Las 
Casas  as  saying:  “It  was  an  interesting  spectacle  to 
witness  how  they  took  it  and  what  they  spake.  The 
chief  began  the  ceremony  and  while  he  was  engaged  ; 
all  remained  silent.  . . . When  he  had  snuffed  up  the  1 
powder  through  his  nostrils,  he  remained  silent  for  a 
while  with  his  head  inclined  to  one  side  and  his 
arms  placed  on  his  knees.  Then  he  raised  his  face 
heavenward,  uttering  certain  words  which  must 
have  been  his  prayer  to  the  true  God,  or  to  him 
whom  he  held  as  God;  after  which  all  responded, 
almost  as  we  do  when  we  say  amen;  and  this  they 
did  with  a loud  voice  or  sound.  Then  they  gave 
thanks  and  said  to  him  certain  complimentary 
things,  entreating  his  benevolence  and  begging  him 
to  reveal  to  them  what  he  had  seen.  He  described 
to  them  his  vision,  saying  that  the  Cemi  [spirits] 
had  spoken  to  him  and  had  predicted  good  times  or 
the  contrary,  or  that  children  were  to  be  born,  or  to 
die,  or  that  there  was  to  be  some  dispute  with  their 
neighbors,  and  other  things  which  might  come  to  his 
imagination,  all  disturbed  with  that  intoxication.”  1 

Clearly,  from  the  point  of  view  of  priests  and 
soothsayers,  the  place  where  huilca  was  first  found 
and  used  in  their  incantations  would  be  important. 
It  is  not  strange  to  find  therefore  that  the  Inca  name 
of  this  river  was  Uilca-mayu:  the  “huilca  river.” 

1 Mr.  Safford  says  in  his  article  on  the  “Identity  of  Cohoba” 
{Journal  of  the  Washington  Academy  of  Sciences , Sept.  19,  1916): 
“The  most  remarkable  fact  connected  with  Piptadenia  peregrina , or 
‘tree-tobacco’  is  that  . . . the  source  of  its  intoxicating  properties  still 
remains  unknown.’’  One  of  the  bifurcated  tubes,  “ in  the  first  stages 
of  manufacture,”  was  found  at  Machu  Picchu. 


THE  SEARCH  CONTINUED 


219 


The  pampa  on  this  river  where  the  trees  grew  would 
likely  receive  the  name  Uilca  pampa.  If  it  became 
an  important  city,  then  the  surrounding  region 
might  be  named  Uilcapampa  after  it.  This  seems 
to  me  to  be  the  most  probable  origin  of  the  name  of 
the  province.  Anyhow  it  is  worth  noting  the  fact 
that  denizens  of  Cuzco  and  Ollantaytambo,  coming 
down  the  river  in  search  of  this  highly  prized  nar- 
cotic, must  have  found  the  first  trees  not  far  from 
Machu  Picchu. 

Leaving  the  ruins  of  Machu  Picchu  for  later 
investigation,  we  now  pushed  on  down  the  Uru- 
bamba  Valley,  crossed  the  bridge  of  San  Miguel, 
passed  the  house  of  Senor  Lizarraga,  first  of  modern 
Peruvians  to  write  his  name  on  the  granite  walls  of 
Machu  Picchu,  and  came  to  the  sugar-cane  fields 
of  Huadquina.  We  had  now  left  the  temperate  zone 
and  entered  the  tropics. 

At  Huadquina  we  were  so  fortunate  as  to  find 
that  the  proprietress  of  the  plantation,  Senora  Car- 
men Vargas,  and  her  children,  were  spending  the 
season  here.  During  the  rainy  winter  months  they 
live  in  Cuzco,  but  when  summer  brings  fine  weather 
they  come  to  Huadquina  to  enjoy  the  free-and-easy 
life  of  the  country.  They  made  us  welcome,  not  only 
with  that  hospitality  to  passing  travelers  which  is 
common  to  sugar  estates  all  over  the  world,  but 
gave  us  real  assistance  in  our  explorations.  Senora 
Carmen’s  estate  covers  more  than  two  hundred 
square  miles.  Huadquina  is  a splendid  example  of 
the  ancient  patriarchal  system.  The  Indians  who 
come  from  other  parts  of  Peru  to  work  on  the  plan- 


220 


INCA  LAND 


tation  enjoy  perquisites  and  wages  unknown  else- 
where. Those  whose  home  is  on  the  estate  regard 
Senora  Carmen  with  an  affectionate  reverence 
which  she  well  deserves.  All  are  welcome  to  bring 
her  their  troubles.  The  system  goes  back  to  the 
days  when  the  spiritual,  moral,  and  material  welfare 
of  the  Indians  was  entrusted  in  encomienda  to  the 
lords  of  the  repartimiento  or  allotted  territory. 

Huadquina  once  belonged  to  the  Jesuits.  They 
planted  the  first  sugar  cane  and  established  the  mill. 
After  their  expulsion  from  the  Spanish  colonies  at 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Huadquina  was 
bought  by  a Peruvian.  It  was  first  described  in  geo- 
graphical literature  by  the  Count  de  Sartiges,  who 
stayed  here  for  several  weeks  in  1834  when  on  his 
way  to  Choqquequirau.  He  says  that  the  owner  of 
Huadquina  “is  perhaps  the  only  landed  proprietor 
in  the  entire  world  who  possesses  on  his  estates  all 
the  products  of  the  four  parts  of  the  globe.  In  the 
different  regions  of  his  domain  he  has  wool,  hides, 
horsehair,  potatoes,  wheat,  corn,  sugar,  coffee,  choc- 
olate, coca , many  mines  of  silver-bearing  lead,  and 
placers  of  gold.”  Truly  a royal  principality. 

Incidentally  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  although 
Sartiges  was  an  enthusiastic  explorer,  eager  to  visit 
undescribed  Inca  ruins,  he  makes  no  mention  what- 
ever of  Machu  Picchu.  Yet  from  Huadquina  one 
can  reach  Machu  Picchu  on  foot  in  half  a day  with- 
out crossing  the  Urubamba  River.  Apparently  the 
ruins  were  unknown  to  his  hosts  in  1834.  They  were 
equally  unknown  to  our  kind  hosts  in  1911.  They 
scarcely  believed  the  story  I told  them  of  the  beauty 


HUADQUINA 


THE  SEARCH  CONTINUED 


221 


and  extent  of  the  Inca  edifices.1  When  my  photo- 
graphs were  developed,  however,  and  they  saw  with 
their  own  eyes  the  marvelous  stonework  of  the  prin- 
cipal temples,  Senora  Carmen  and  her  family  were 
struck  dumb  with  wonder  and  astonishment.  They 
could  not  understand  how  it  was  possible  that  they 
should  have  passed  so  close  to  Machu  Picchu  every 
year  of  their  lives  since  the  river  road  was  opened 
without  knowing  what  was  there.  They  had  seen 
a single  little  building  on  the  crest  of  the  ridge,  but 
supposed  that  it  was  an  isolated  tower  of  no  great 
interest  or  importance.  Their  neighbor,  Lizarraga, 
near  the  bridge  of  San  Miguel,  had  reported  the 
presence  of  the  ruins  which  he  first  visited  in  1904, 
but,  like  our  friends  in  Cuzco,  they  had  paid  little 
attention  to  his  stories.  We  were  soon  to  have  a 
demonstration  of  the  causes  of  such  skepticism. 

Our  new  friends  read  with  interest  my  copy  of 
those  paragraphs  of  Calancha’s  “Chronicle”  which 
referred  to  the  location  of  the  last  Inca  capital. 
Learning  that  we  were  anxious  to  discover  Uiticos, 
a place  of  which  they  had  never  heard,  they  ordered 
the  most  intelligent  tenants  on  the  estate  to  come  in 
and  be  questioned.  The  best  informed  of  all  was  a 
sturdy  mestizo , a trusted  foreman,  who  said  that  in 
a little  valley  called  Ccllumayu,  a few  hours’  jour- 
ney down  the  Urubamba,  there  were  “important 
ruins”  which  had  been  seen  by  some  of  Senora 
Carmen’s  Indians.  Even  more  interesting  and  thrill- 
ing was  his  statement  that  on  a ridge  up  the  Sal- 
cantay  Valley  was  a place  called  Yurak  Rumi 
1 See  the  illustrations  in  Chapters  XVII  and  XVIII. 


222 


INCA  LAND 


{yurak  = “ white”;  rumi  = “stone”)  where  some 
very  interesting  ruins  had  been  found  by  his  work- 
men when  cutting  trees  for  firewood.  We  all  became 
excited  over  this,  for  among  the  paragraphs  which  I 
had  copied  from  Calancha’s  “Chronicle”  was  the 
statement  that  “close  to  Uiticos”  is  the  “white 
stone  of  the  aforesaid  house  of  the  Sun  which  is 
called  Yurak  Rumi.”  Our  hosts  assured  us  that  this 
must  be  the  place,  since  no  one  hereabouts  had  ever 
heard  of  any  other  Yurak  Rumi.  The  foreman,  on 
being  closely  questioned,  said  that  he  had  seen  the 
ruins  once  or  twice,  that  he  had  also  been  up  the 
Urubamba  Valley  and  seen  the  great  ruins  at  Ollan- 
taytambo,  and  that  those  which  he  had  seen  at 
Yurak  Rumi  were  “as  good  as  those  at  Ollantay- 
tambo.”  Here  was  a definite  statement  made  by  an 
eyewitness.  Apparently  we  were  about  to  see  that 
interesting  rock  where  the  last  Incas  worshiped. 
However,  the  foreman  said  that  the  trail  thither 
was  at  present  impassable,  although  a small  gang  of 
Indians  could  open  it  in  less  than  a week.  Our  hosts, 
excited  by  the  pictures  we  had  shown  them  of 
Machu  Picchu,  and  now  believing  that  even  finer 
ruins  might  be  found  on  their  own  property,  im- 
mediately gave  orders  to  have  the  path  to  Yurak 
Rumi  cleared  for  our  benefit. 

While  this  was  being  done,  Senora  Carmen’s  son, 
the  manager  of  the  plantation,  offered  to  accompany 
us  himself  to  Ccllumayu,  where  other  “important 
ruins”  had  been  found,  which  could  be  reached  in  a 
few  hours  without  cutting  any  new  trails.  Acting 
on  his  assurance  that  we  should  not  need  tent  or 


THE  SEARCH  CONTINUED 


223 


cots,  we  left  our  camping  outfit  behind  and  followed 
him  to  a small  valley  on  the  south  side  of  the  Uru- 
bamba.  We  found  Ccllumayu  to  consist  of  two  huts 
in  a small  clearing.  Densely  wooded  slopes  rose  on  all 
sides.  The  manager  requested  two  of  the  Indian 
tenants  to  act  as  guides.  With  them,  we  plunged 
into  the  thick  jungle  and  spent  a long  and  fatigu- 
ing day  searching  in  vain  for  ruins.  That  night 
the  manager  returned  to  Huadquina,  but  Professor 
Foote  and  I preferred  to  remain  in  Ccllumayu  and 
prosecute  a more  vigorous  search  on  the  next  day. 
We  shared  a little  thatched  hut  with  our  Indian 
hosts  and  a score  of  fat  cuys  (guinea  pigs),  the 
chief  source  of  the  Ccllumayu  meat  supply.  The  hut 
was  built  of  rough  wattles  which  admitted  plenty 
of  fresh  air  and  gave  us  comfortable  ventilation. 
Primitive  little  sleeping-platforms,  also  of  wattles, 
constructed  for  the  needs  of  short,  stocky  Indians, 
kept  us  from  being  overrun  by  inquisitive  cuys , but 
could  hardly  be  called  as  comfortable  as  our  own 
folding  cots  which  we  had  left  at  Huadquina. 

The  next  day  our  guides  were  able  to  point  out  in 
the  woods  a few  piles  of  stones,  the  foundations  of 
oval  or  circular  huts  which  probably  were  built  by 
some  primitive  savage  tribe  in  prehistoric  times. 
Nothing  further  could  be  found  here  of  ruins,  “ im- 
portant” or  otherwise,  although  we  spent  three  days 
at  Ccllumayu.  Such  was  our  first  disillusionment. 

On  our  return  to  Huadquina,  we  learned  that  the 
trail  to  Yurak  Rumi  would  be  ready  “in  a day  or 
two.”  In  the  meantime  our  hosts  became  much 
interested  in  Professor  Foote’s  collection  of  insects. 


224 


INCA  LAND 


They  brought  an  unnamed  scorpion  and  informed 
us  that  an  orange  orchard  surrounded  by  high  walls 
in  a secluded  place  back  of  the  house  was  “a  great 
place  for  spiders.”  We  found  that  their  statement 
was  not  exaggerated  and  immediately  engaged  in 
an  enthusiastic  spider  hunt.  When  these  Huad- 
quina  spiders  were  studied  at  the  Harvard  Museum 
of  Comparative  Zoology,  Dr.  Chamberlain  found 
among  them  the  representatives  of  four  new  genera 
and  nineteen  species  hitherto  unknown  to  science. 
As  a reward  of  merit,  he  gave  Professor  Foote’s 
name  to  the  scorpion ! 

Finally  the  trail  to  Yurak  Rumi  was  reported 
finished.  It  was  with  feelings  of  keen  anticipation 
that  I started  out  with  the  foreman  to  see  those 
ruins  which  he  had  just  revisited  and  now  declared 
were  “better  than  those  of  Ollantaytambo.”  It 
was  to  be  presumed  that  in  the  pride  of  discovery  he 
might  have  exaggerated  their  importance.  Still  it 
never  entered  my  head  what  I was  actually  to  find. 
After  several  hours  spent  in  clearing  away  the  dense 
forest  growth  which  surrounded  the  walls  I learned 
that  this  Yurak  Rumi  consisted  of  the  ruins  of  a 
single  little  rectangular  Inca  storehouse.  No  effort 
had  been  made  at  beauty  of  construction.  The  walls 
were  of  rough,  unfashioned  stones  laid  in  clay.  The 
building  was  without  a doorway,  although  it  had 
several  small  windows  and  a series  of  ventilating 
shafts  under  the  house.  The  lintels  of  the  windows 
and  of  the  small  apertures  leading  into  the  sub- 
terranean shafts  were  of  stone.  There  were  no 
windows  on  the  sunny  north  side  or  on  the  ends, 


THE  SEARCH  CONTINUED 


225 


but  there  were  four  on  the  south  side  through  which 
it  would  have  been  possible  to  secure  access  to  the 
stores  of  maize,  potatoes,  or  other  provisions  placed 
here  for  safe-keeping.  It  will  be  recalled  that  the 


ELEVATION  SOUTH  SIDE  SECTION  A- B 


Ruins  of  Yurak.  Rumi  near  Huadquina.  Probably  an 
Inca  Storehouse,  well  ventilated  and  well  drained.  Drawn 
byA.H.Bumsteadfrom  measurements  and  photographs 
by  Hiram  Bingham  and  H.W.  Foote. 


Incas  maintained  an  extensive  system  of  public 
storehouses,  not  only  in  the  centers  of  population, 
but  also  at  strategic  points  on  the  principal  trails. 
Yurak  Rumi  is  on  top  of  the  ridge  between  the 
Salcantay  and  Huadquina  valleys,  probably  on  an 
ancient  road  which  crossed  the  province  of  Uilca- 
pampa.  As  such  it  was  interesting;  but  to  compare 
it  with  Ollantaytambo,  as  the  foreman  had  done, 


22  6 


INCA  LAND 


was  to  liken  a cottage  to  a palace  or  a mouse  to  an 
elephant.  It  seems  incredible  that  anybody  having 
actually  seen  both  places  could  have  thought  for 
a moment  that  one  was  “as  good  as  the  other.” 
To  be  sure,  the  foreman  was  not  a trained  observer 
and  his  interest  in  Inca  buildings  was  probably  of 
the  slightest.  Yet  the  ruins  of  Ollantaytambo  are 
so  well  known  and  so  impressive  that  even  the  most 
casual  traveler  is  struck  by  them  and  the  natives 
themselves  are  enormously  proud  of  them.  The  real 
cause  of  the  foreman’s  inaccuracy  was  probably  his 
desire  to  please.  To  give  an  answer  which  will 
satisfy  the  questioner  is  a common  trait  in  Peru  as 
well  as  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world.  Anyhow, 
the  lessons  of  the  past  few  days  were  not  lost  on  us. 
We  now  understood  the  skepticism  which  had  pre- 
vailed regarding  Lizarraga’s  discoveries.  It  is  small 
wonder  that  the  occasional  stories  about  Machu 
Picchu  which  had  drifted  into  Cuzco  had  never 
elicited  any  enthusiasm  nor  even  provoked  investiga- 
tion on  the  part  of  those  professors  and  students  in 
the  University  of  Cuzco  who  were  interested  in  visit- 
ing the  remains  of  Inca  civilization.  They  knew  only 
too  well  the  fondness  of  their  countrymen  for  exag- 
geration and  their  inability  to  report  facts  accu- 
rately. 

Obviously,  we  had  not  yet  found  Uiticos.  So,  bid- 
ding farewell  to  Senora  Carmen,  we  crossed  the 
Urubamba  on  the  bridge  of  Colpani  and  proceeded 
down  the  valley  past  the  mouth  of  the  Lucumayo 
and  the  road  from  Panticalla,  to  the  hamlet  of 
Chauillay,  where  the  Urubamba  is  joined  by  the 


THE  SEARCH  CONTINUED 


227 


Vilcabamba  River.1  Both  rivers  are  restricted  here 
to  narrow  gorges,  through  which  their  waters  rush 
and  roar  on  their  way  to  the  lower  valley.  A few 
rods  from  Chauillay  was  a fine  bridge.  The  natives 
call  it  Chuquichaca ! Steel  and  iron  have  superseded 
the  old  suspension  bridge  of  huge  cables  made  of 
vegetable  fiber,  with  its  narrow  roadway  of  wattles 
supported  by  a network  of  vines.  Yet  here  it  was 
that  in  1572  the  military  force  sent  by  the  viceroy, 
Francisco  de  Toledo,  under  the  command  of  General 
Martin  Hurtado  and  Captain  Garcia,  found  the 
forces  of  the  young  Inca  drawn  up  to  defend  Uiti- 
cos.  It  will  be  remembered  that  after  a brief  pre- 
liminary fire  the  forces  of  Tupac  Amaru  were  routed 
without  having  destroyed  the  bridge  and  thus  Cap- 
tain Garcia  was  enabled  to  accomplish  that  which 
had  proved  too  much  for  the  famous  Gonzalo  Pi- 
zarro.  Our  inspection  of  the  surroundings  showed 
that  Captain  Garcia’s  companion,  Baltasar  de 
Ocampo,  was  correct  when  he  said  that  the  occu- 
pation of  the  bridge  of  Chuquichaca  “was  a measure 
of  no  small  importance  for  the  royal  force.”  It 
certainly  would  have  caused  the  Spaniards  “great 
trouble”  if  they  had  had  to  rebuild  it. 

We  might  now  have  proceeded  to  follow  Garcia’s 
tracks  up  the  Vilcabamba  had  we  not  been  anxious 
to  see  the  proprietor  of  the  plantation  of  Santa  Ana, 

1 Since  the  historical  Uilcapampa  is  not  geographically  identical 
with  the  modern  Vilcabamba,  the  name  applied  to  this  river  and  the 
old  Spanish  town  at  its  source,  I shall  distinguish  between  the  two 
by  using  the  correct,  official  spelling  for  the  river  and  town,  viz., 
Vilcabamba;  and  the  phonetic  spelling,  Uilcapampa,  for  the  place 
referred  to  in  the  contemporary  histories  of  the  Inca  Manco. 


228 


INCA  LAND 


Don  Pedro  Duque,  reputed  to  be  the  wisest  and 
ablest  man  in  this  whole  province.  We  felt  he  would 
be  able  to  offer  us  advice  of  prime  importance  in  our 
search.  So  leaving  the  bridge  of  Chuquichaca,  we 
continued  down  the  Urubamba  River  which  here 
meanders  through  a broad,  fertile  valley,  green  with 
tropical  plantations.  We  passed  groves  of  bananas 
and  oranges,  waving  fields  of  green  sugar  cane,  the 
hospitable  dwellings  of  prosperous  planters,  and 
the  huts  of  Indians  fortunate  enough  to  dwell  in 
this  tropical  “Garden  of  Eden.”  The  day  was  hot 
and  thirst-provoking,  so  I stopped  near  some  large 
orange  trees  loaded  with  ripe  fruit  and  asked  the 
Indian  proprietress  to  sell  me  ten  cents’  worth.  In 
exchange  for  the  tiny  silver  real  she  dragged  out 
a sack  containing  more  than  fifty  oranges!  I was 
fain  to  request  her  to  permit  us  to  take  only  as  many 
as  our  pockets  could  hold;  but  she  seemed  so  sur- 
prised and  pained,  we  had  to  fill  our  saddle-bags  as 
well. 

At  the  end  of  the  day  we  crossed  the  Urubamba 
River  on  a fine  steel  bridge  and  found  ourselves  in 
the  prosperous  little  town  of  Quillabamba,  the  pro- 
vincial capital.  Its  main  street  was  lined  with  well- 
filled  shops,  evidence  of  the  fact  that  this  is  one 
of  the  principal  gateways  to  the  Peruvian  rubber 
country  which,  with  the  high  price  of  rubber  then 
prevailing,  1911,  was  the  scene  of  unusual  activity. 
Passing  through  Quillabamba  and  up  a slight  hill 
beyond  it,  we  came  to  the  long  colonnades  of  the 
celebrated  sugar  estate  of  Santa  Ana  founded  by  the 
Jesuits,  where  all  explorers  who  have  passed  this 


THE  SEARCH  CONTINUED 


229 


way  since  the  days  of  Charles  Wiener  have  been 
entertained.  He  says  that  he  was  received  here 
“with  a thousand  signs  of  friendship”  (“ mille  te - 
moignages  d'amitie ”).  We  were  received  the  same 
way.  Even  in  a region  where  we  had  repeatedly 
received  valuable  assistance  from  government  offi- 
cials and  generous  hospitality  from  private  indi- 
viduals, our  reception  at  Santa  Ana  stands  out  as 
particularly  delightful. 

Don  Pedro  Duque  took  great  interest  in  enabling 
us  to  get  all  possible  information  about  the  little- 
known  region  into  which  we  proposed  to  penetrate. 
Born  in  Colombia,  but  long  resident  in  Peru,  he  was 
a gentleman  of  the  old  school,  keenly  interested,  not 
only  in  the  administration  and  economic  progress  of 
his  plantation,  but  also  in  the  intellectual  movements 
of  the  outside  world.  He  entered  with  zest  into  our 
historical-geographical  studies.  The  name  Uiticos 
was  new  to  him,  but  after  reading  over  with  us  our 
extracts  from  the  Spanish  chronicles  he  was  sure 
that  he  could  help  us  find  it.  And  help  us  he  did. 
Santa  Ana  is  less  than  thirteen  degrees  south  of  the 
equator;  the  elevation  is  barely  2000  feet;  the  “win- 
ter” nights  are  cool;  but  the  heat  in  the  middle  of 
the  day  is  intense.  Nevertheless,  our  host  was  so 
energetic  that  as  a result  of  his  efforts  a number  of 
the  best-informed  residents  were  brought  to  the  con- 
ferences at  the  great  plantation  house.  They  told 
all  they  knew  of  the  towns  and  valleys  where  the  last 
four  Incas  had  found  a refuge,  but  that  was  not 
much.  They  all  agreed  that  “if  only  Senor  Lopez 
Torres  were  alive  he  could  have  been  of  great 


230 


INCA  LAND 


service”  to  us,  as  “he  had  prospected  for  mines  and 
rubber  in  those  parts  more  than  any  one  else,  and 
had  once  seen  some  Inca  ruins  in  the  forest!”  Of 
Uiticos  and  Chuquipalpa  and  most  of  the  places 
mentioned  in  the  chronicles,  none  of  Don  Pedro’s 
friends  had  ever  heard.  It  was  all  rather  discourag- 
ing, until  one  day,  by  the  greatest  good  fortune, 
there  arrived  at  Santa  Ana  another  friend  of  Don 
Pedro’s,  the  teniente  gobernador  of  the  village  of 
Lucma  in  the  valley  of  Vilcabamba  — a crusty  old 
fellow  named  Evaristo  Mogrovejo.  His  brother,  Pio 
Mogrovejo,  had  been  a member  of  the  party  of 
energetic  Peruvians  who,  in  1884,  had  searched  for 
buried  treasure  at  Choqquequirau  and  had  left 
their  names  on  its  walls.  Evaristo  Mogrovejo  could 
understand  searching  for  buried  treasure,  but  he  was 
totally  unable  otherwise  to  comprehend  our  desire 
to  find  the  ruins  of  the  places  mentioned  by  Father 
Calancha  and  the  contemporaries  of  Captain  Garcia. 
Had  we  first  met  Mogrovejo  in  Lucma  he  would 
undoubtedly  have  received  us  with  suspicion  and 
done  nothing  to  further  our  quest.  Fortunately  for 
us,  his  official  superior  was  the  sub-prefect  of  the 
province  of  Convencion,  lived  at  Quillabamba  near 
Santa  Ana,  and  was  a friend  of  Don  Pedro’s.  The 
sub-prefect  had  received  orders  from  his  own  official 
superior,  the  prefect  of  Cuzco,  to  take  a personal 
interest  in  our  undertaking,  and  accordingly  gave 
particular  orders  to  Mogrovejo  to  see  to  it  that  we 
were  given  every  facility  for  finding  the  ancient 
ruins  and  identifying  the  places  of  historic  interest. 
Although  Mogrovejo  declined  to  risk  his  skin  in  the 


THE  SEARCH  CONTINUED 


231 


savage  wilderness  of  Conservidayoc,  he  carried  out 
his  orders  faithfully  and  was  ultimately  of  great 
assistance  to  us. 

Extremely  gratified  with  the  result  of  our  confer- 
ences in  Santa  Ana,  yet  reluctant  to  leave  the  de- 
lightful hospitality  and  charming  conversation  of  our 
gracious  host,  we  decided  to  go  at  once  to  Lucma, 
taking  the  road  on  the  southwest  side  of  the  Uru- 
bamba  and  using  the  route  followed  by  the  pack 
animals  which  carry  the  precious  cargoes  of  coca 
and  aguardiente  from  Santa  Ana  to  Ollantaytambo 
and  Cuzco.  Thanks  to  Don  Pedro’s  energy,  we  made 
an  excellent  start;  not  one  of  those  meant-to-be- 
early  but  really  late-in-the-morning  departures  so 
customary  in  the  Andes. 

We  passed  through  a region  which  originally  had 
been  heavily  forested,  had  long  since  been  cleared, 
and  was  now  covered  with  bushes  and  second 
growth.  Near  the  roadside  I noticed  a considerable 
number  of  land  shells  grouped  on  the  under-side  of 
overhanging  rocks.  As  a boy  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
I had  spent  too  many  Saturdays  collecting  those 
beautiful  and  fascinating  mollusks,  which  usually 
prefer  the  trees  of  upland  valleys,  to  enable  me  to 
resist  the  temptation  of  gathering  a large  number  of 
such  as  could  easily  be  secured.  None  of  the  snails 
were  moving.  The  dry  season  appears  to  be  their 
resting  period.  Some  weeks  later  Professor  Foote 
and  I passed  through  Maras  and  were  interested  to 
notice  thousands  of  land  shells,  mostly  white  in 
color,  on  small  bushes,  where  they  seemed  to  be 
quietly  sleeping.  They  were  fairly  “glued  to  their 


232 


INCA  LAND 


resting  places”;  clustered  so  closely  in  some  cases  as 
to  give  the  stems  of  the  bushes  a ghostly  appearance. 

Our  present  objective  was  the  valley  of  the  river 
Vilcabamba.  So  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  learn, 
only  one  other  explorer  had  preceded  us  — the 
distinguished  scientist  Raimondi.  His  map  of  the 
Vilcabamba  is  fairly  accurate.  He  reports  the  pres- 
ence here  of  mines  and  minerals,  but  with  the  excep- 
tion of  an  “abandoned  tampu ” at  Maracnyoc  (“the 
place  which  possesses  a millstone”),  he  makes  no 
mention  of  any  ruins.  Accordingly,  although  it 
seemed  from  the  story  of  Baltasar  de  Ocampo  and 
Captain  Garcia’s  other  contemporaries  that  we  were 
now  entering  the  valley  of  Uiticos,  it  was  with  feel- 
ings of  considerable  uncertainty  that  we  proceeded 
on  our  quest.  It  may  seem  strange  that  we  should 
have  been  in  any  doubt.  Yet  before  our  visit  nearly 
all  the  Peruvian  historians  and  geographers  except 
Don  Carlos  Romero  still  believed  that  when  the 
Inca  Manco  fled  from  Pizarro  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Choqquequirau  in  the  Apurimac  Valley. 
The  word  choqquequirau  means  “cradle  of  gold” 
and  this  lent  color  to  the  legend  that  Manco  had 
carried  off  with  him  from  Cuzco  great  quantities  of 
gold  utensils  and  much  treasure,  which  he  deposited 
in  his  new  capital.  Raimondi,  knowing  that  Manco 
had  “retired  to  Uilcapampa,”  visited  both  the 
present  villages  of  Vilcabamba  and  Pucyura  and 
saw  nothing  of  any  ruins.  He  was  satisfied  that 
Choqquequirau  was  Manco’s  refuge  because  it  was 
far  enough  from  Pucyura  to  answer  the  requirements 
of  Calancha  that  it  was  “two  or  three  days’  journey  ” 
from  Uilcapampa  to  Puquiura. 


THE  SEARCH  CONTINUED 


233 


A new  road  had  recently  been  built  along  the 
river  bank  by  the  owner  of  the  sugar  estate  at  Pal- 
taybamba,  to  enable  his  pack  animals  to  travel  more 
rapidly.  Much  of  it  had  to  be  carved  out  of  the  face 
of  a solid  rock  precipice  and  in  places  it  pierces  the 
cliffs  in  a series  of  little  tunnels.  My  gendarme 
missed  this  road  and  took  the  steep  old  trail  over 
the  cliffs.  As  Ocampo  said  in  his  story  of  Captain 
Garcia’s  expedition,  “the  road  was  narrow  in  the 
ascent  with  forest  on  the  right,  and  on  the  left  a 
ravine  of  great  depth.”  We  reached  Paltaybamba 
about  dusk.  The  owner,  Senor  Jose  S.  Pancorbo, 
was  absent,  attending  to  the  affairs  of  a rubber 
estate  in  the  jungles  of  the  river  San  Miguel.  The 
plantation  of  Paltaybamba  occupies  the  best  lands 
in  the  lower  Vilcabamba  Valley,  but  lying,  as  it  does, 
well  off  the  main  highway,  visitors  are  rare  and  our 
arrival  was  the  occasion  for  considerable  excitement. 
We  were  not  unexpected,  however.  It  was  Senor 
Pancorbo  who  had  assured  us  in  Cuzco  that  we 
should  find  ruins  near  Pucyura  and  he  had  told  his 
major-domo  to  be  on  the  look-out  for  us.  We  had  a 
long  talk  with  the  manager  of  the  plantation  and  his 
friends  that  evening.  They  had  heard  little  of  any 
ruins  in  this  vicinity,  but  repeated  one  of  the  stories 
we  had  heard  in  Santa  Ana,  that  way  off  somewhere 
in  the  montana  there  was  “an  Inca  city.”  All  agreed 
that  it  was  a very  difficult  place  to  reach ; and  none 
of  them  had  ever  been  there.  In  the  morning  the 
manager  gave  us  a guide  to  the  next  house  up  the 
valley,  with  orders  that  the  man  at  that  house 
should  relay  us  to  the  next,  and  so  on.  These  people, 


234 


INCA  LAND 


all  tenants  of  the  plantation,  obligingly  carried  out 
their  orders,  although  at  considerable  inconvenience 
to  themselves. 

The  Vilcabamba  Valley  above  Paltaybamba  is 
very  picturesque.  There  are  high  mountains  on 
either  side,  covered  with  dense  jungle  and  dark  green 
foliage,  in  pleasing  contrast  to  the  light  green  of  the 
fields  of  waving  sugar  cane.  The  valley  is  steep,  the 
road  is  very  winding,  and  the  torrent  of  the  Vilca- 
bamba roars  loudly,  even  in  July.  What  it  must  be 
like  in  February,  the  rainy  season,  we  could  only 
surmise.  About  two  leagues  above  Paltaybamba, 
at  or  near  the  spot  called  by  Raimondi  “Marac- 
nyoc,”  an  “abandoned  tampu ,”  we  came  to  some 
old  stone  walls,  the  ruins  of  a place  now  called 
Huayara  or  “Hoyara.”  I believe  them  to  be  the 
ruins  of  the  first  Spanish  settlement  in  this  region, 
a place  referred  to  by  Ocampo,  who  says  that  the 
fugitives  of  Tupac  Amaru’s  army  were  “brought 
back  to  the  valley  of  Hoyara,”  where  they  were 
“settled  in  a large  village,  and  a city  of  Spaniards 
was  founded.  . . . This  city  was  founded  on  an 
extensive  plain  near  a river,  with  an  admirable 
climate.  From  the  river  channels  of  water  were 
taken  for  the  service  of  the  city,  the  water  being 
very  good.”  The  water  here  is  excellent,  far  better 
than  any  in  the  Cuzco  Basin.  On  the  plain  near  the 
river  are  some  of  the  last  cane  fields  of  the  planta- 
tion of  Paltaybamba.  “Hoyara”  was  abandoned 
after  the  discovery  of  gold  mines  several  leagues 
farther  up  the  valley,  and  the  Spanish  “city”  was 
moved  to  the  village  now  called  Vilcabamba. 


THE  SEARCH  CONTINUED 


235 


Our  next  stop  was  at  Lucma,  the  home  of  Teniente 
Gobernador  Mogrovejo.  The  village  of  Lucma  is  an 
irregular  cluster  of  about  thirty  thatched-roofed 
huts.  It  enjoys  a moderate  amount  of  prosperity 
due  to  the  fact  of  its  being  located  near  one  of  the 
gateways  to  the  interior,  the  pass  to  the  rubber 
estates  in  the  San  Miguel  Valley.  Here  are  “houses 
of  refreshment”  and  two  shops,  the  only  ones  in  the 
region.  One  can  buy  cotton  cloth,  sugar,  canned 
goods  and  candles.  A picturesque  belfry  and  a small 
church,  old  and  somewhat  out  of  repair,  crown  the 
small  hill  back  of  the  village.  There  is  little  level 
land,  but  the  slopes  are  gentle,  and  permit  a con- 
siderable amount  of  agriculture. 

There  was  no  evidence  of  extensive  terracing. 
Maize  and  alfalfa  seemed  to  be  the  principal  crops. 
Evaristo  Mogrovejo  lived  on  the  little  plaza  around 
which  the  houses  of  the  more  important  people  were 
grouped.  He  had  just  returned  from  Santa  Ana  by 
the  way  of  Idma,  using  a much  worse  trail  than  that 
over  which  we  had  come,  but  one  which  enabled  him 
to  avoid  passing  through  Paltaybamba,  with  whose 
proprietor  he  was  not  on  good  terms.  He  told  us 
stories  of  misadventures  which  had  happened  to 
travelers  at  the  gates  of  Paltaybamba,  stories  highly 
reminiscent  of  feudal  days  in  Europe,  when  pro- 
vincial barons  were  accustomed  to  lay  tribute  on  all 
who  passed. 

We  offered  to  pay  Mogrovejo  a gratification  of  a 
sol , or  Peruvian  silver  dollar,  for  every  ruin  to  which 
he  would  take  us,  and  double  that  amount  if  the 
locality  should  prove  to  contain  particularly  inter- 


INCA  LAND 


236 

esting  ruins.  This  aroused  all  his  business  instincts. 
He  summoned  his  alcaldes  and  other  well-informed 
Indians  to  appear  and  be  interviewed.  They  told 
us  there  were  “many  ruins”  hereabouts!  Being  a 
practical  man  himself,  Mogrovejo  had  never  taken 
any  interest  in  ruins.  Now  he  saw  the  chance  not 
only  to  make  money  out  of  the  ancient  sites,  but 
also  to  gain  official  favor  by  carrying  out  with  un- 
exampled vigor  the  orders  of  his  superior,  the  sub- 
prefect of  Quillabamba.  So  he  exerted  himself  to  the 
utmost  in  our  behalf. 

The  next  day  we  were  guided  up  a ravine  to  the 
top  of  the  ridge  back  of  Lucma.  This  ridge  divides 
the  upper  from  the  lower  Vilcabamba.  On  all  sides 
the  hills  rose  several  thousand  feet  above  us.  In 
places  they  were  covered  with  forest  growth,  chiefly 
above  the  cloud  line,  where  daily  moisture  encour- 
ages vegetation.  In  some  of  the  forests  on  the  more 
gentle  slopes  recent  clearings  gave  evidence  of  en- 
terprise on  the  part  of  the  present  inhabitants  of 
the  valley.  After  an  hour's  climb  we  reached  what 
were  unquestionably  the  ruins  of  Inca  structures, 
on  an  artificial  terrace  which  commands  a magnifi- 
cent view  far  down  toward  Paltaybamba  and  the 
bridge  of  Chuquichaca,  as  well  as  in  the  opposite 
direction.  The  contemporaries  of  Captain  Garcia 
speak  of  a number  of  forts  or  pucaras  which  had 
to  be  stormed  and  captured  before  Tupac  Amaru 
could  be  taken  prisoner.  This  was  probably  one  of 
those  “fortresses.”  Its  strategic  position  and  the 
ease  with  which  it  could  be  defended  point  to  such 
an  interpretation.  Nevertheless  this  ruin  did  not  fit 


THE  SEARCH  CONTINUED 


237 


the  “ fortress  of  Pitcos,”  nor  the  “ House  of  the  Sun ” 
near  the  “ white  rock  over  the  spring.”  It  is  called 
Incahnaracana , “the  place  where  the  Inca  shoots 
with  a sling.” 

Incahuaracana  consists  of  two  typical  Inca  edi- 
fices — one  of  two  rooms,  about  70  by  20  feet,  and 
the  other,  very  long  and  narrow,  150  by  11  feet. 
The  walls,  of  unhewn  stone  laid  in  clay,  were  not 
particularly  well  built  and  resemble  in  many  re- 
spects the  ruins  at  Choqquequirau.  The  rooms  of 
the  principal  house  are  without  windows,  although 
each  has  three  front  doors  and  is  lined  with  niches, 
four  or  five  on  a side.  The  long,  narrow  building  was 
divided  into  three  rooms,  and  had  several  front 
doors.  A force  of  two  hundred  Indian  soldiers  could 
have  slept  in  these  houses  without  unusual  crowding. 

We  left  Lucma  the  next  day,  forded  the  Vilca- 
bamba  River  and  soon  had  an  uninterrupted  view 
up  the  valley  to  a high,  truncated  hill,  its  top  partly 
covered  with  a scrubby  growth  of  trees  and  bushes, 
its  sides  steep  and  rocky.  We  were  told  that  the 
name  of  the  hill  was  “Rosaspata,”  a word  of  mod- 
ern hybrid  origin  — pata  being  Quichua  for  “hill,” 
while  rosas  is  the  Spanish  word  for  “roses.”  Mo- 
grovejo  said  his  Indians  told  him  that  on  the  “Hill 
of  Roses”  there  were  more  ruins. 

At  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  across  the  river,  is  the 
village  of  Pucyura.  When  Raimondi  was  here  in 
1865  it  was  but  a “wretched  hamlet  with  a paltry 
chapel.”  To-day  it  is  more  prosperous.  There  is  a 
large  public  school  here,  to  which  children  come  from 
villages  many  miles  away.  So  crowded  is  the  school 


INCA  LAND 


238 

that  in  fine  weather  the  children  sit  on  benches  out 
of  doors.  The  boys  all  go  barefooted.  The  girls  wear 
high  boots.  I once  saw  them  reciting  a geography 
lesson,  but  I doubt  if  even  the  teacher  knew  whether 
or  not  this  was  the  site  of  the  first  school  in  this 
whole  region.  For  it  was  to  “Puquiura”  that  Friar 
Marcos  came  in  1566.  Perhaps  he  built  the  “ mez - 
guina  capilla  ” which  Raimondi  scorned.  If  this  were 
the  “ Puquiura”  of  Friar  Marcos,  then  Uiticos  must 
be  near  by,  for  he  and  Friar  Diego  walked  with 
their  famous  procession  of  converts  from  ‘ ‘ Puqui- 
ura” to  the  House  of  the  Sun  and  the  “ white  rock” 
which  was  “close  to  Uiticos.” 

Crossing  the  Vilcabamba  on  a footbridge  that 
afternoon,  we  came  immediately  upon  some  old 
ruins  that  were  not  Incaic.  Examination  showed 
that  they  were  apparently  the  remains  of  a very 
crude  Spanish  crushing  mill,  obviously  intended 
to  pulverize  gold-bearing  quartz  on  a considerable 
scale.  Perhaps  this  was  the  place  referred  to  by 
Ocampo,  who  says  that  the  Inca  Titu  Cusi  attended 
masses  said  by  his  friend  Friar  Diego  in  a chapel 
which  is  “near  my  houses  and  on  my  own  lands,  in 
the  mining  district  of  Puquiura,  close  to  the  ore- 
crushing  mill  of  Don  Christoval  de  Albornoz,  Pre- 
centor that  was  of  the  Cuzco  Cathedral.” 

One  of  the  millstones  is  five  feet  in  diameter  and 
more  than  a foot  thick.  It  lay  near  a huge,  flat  rock 
of  white  granite,  hollowed  out  so  as  to  enable  the 
millstone  to  be  rolled  slowly  around  in  a hollow 
trough.  There  was  also  a very  large  Indian  mortar 
and  pestle,  heavy  enough  to  need  the  services  of 


PUCYURA  AND  THE  HILL  OF  ROSASPATA  IN  THE  VILCABAMBA  VALLEY 


THE  SEARCH  CONTINUED 


239 


four  men  to  work  it.  The  mortar  was  merely  the 
hollowed-out  top  of  a large  boulder  which  projected 
a few  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
pestle,  four  feet  in  diameter,  was  of  the  character- 
istic rocking-stone  shape  used  from  time  immemo- 
rial by  the  Indians  of  the  highlands  for  crushing 
maize  or  potatoes.  Since  no  other  ruins  of  a Span- 
ish quartz-crushing  plant  have  been  found  in  this 
vicinity,  it  is  probable  that  this  once  belonged  to 
Don  Christoval  de  Albornoz. 

Near  the  mill  the  Tincochaca  River  joins  the  Vil- 
eabamba  from  the  southeast.  Crossing  this  on  a 
footbridge,  I followed  Mogrovejo  to  an  old  and  very 
dilapidated  structure  in  the  saddle  of  the  hill  on 
the  south  side  of  Rosaspata.  They  called  the  place 
Uncapampa,  or  Inca  pampa.  It  is  probably  one  of 
the  forts  stormed  by  Captain  Garcia  and  his  men  in 
1571.  The  ruins  represent  a single  house,  166  feet 
long  by  33  feet  wide.  If  the  house  had  partitions 
they  long  since  disappeared.  There  were  six  door- 
ways in  front,  none  on  the  ends  or  in  the  rear  walls. 
The  ruins  resembled  those  of  Incahuaracana,  near 
Lucma.  The  walls  had  originally  been  built  of  rough 
stones  laid  in  clay.  The  general  finish  was  extremely 
rough.  The  few  niches,  all  at  one  end  of  the  struc- 
ture, were  irregular,  about  two  feet  in  width  and  a 
little  more  than  this  in  height.  The  one  corner  of 
the  building  which  was  still  standing  had  a height 
of  about  ten  feet.  Two  hundred  Inca  soldiers  could 
have  slept  here  also. 

Leaving  Uncapampa  and  following  my  guides,  I 
climbed  up  the  ridge  and  followed  a path  along 


240 


INCA  LAND 


its  west  side  to  the  top  of  Rosaspata.  Passing  some 
ruins  much  overgrown  and  of  a primitive  character, 
I soon  found  myself  on  a pleasant  pampa  near  the 
top  of  the  mountain.  The  view  from  here  com- 
mands “a  great  part  of  the  province  of  Uilca- 
pampa.”  It  is  remarkably  extensive  on  all  sides;  to 
the  north  and  south  are  snow-capped  mountains, 
to  the  east  and  west,  deep  verdure-clad  valleys. 

Furthermore,  on  the  north  side  of  the  pampa  is  an 
extensive  level  space  with  a very  sumptuous  and 
majestic  building  “erected  with  great  skill  and  art, 
all  the  lintels  of  the  doors,  the  principal  as  well  as 
the  ordinary  ones,”  being  of  white  granite  elabo- 
rately cut.  At  last  we  had  found  a place  which 
seemed  to  meet  most  of  the  requirements  of  Ocam- 
po’s description  of  the  “fortress  of  Pitcos.”  To  be 
sure  it  was  not  of  “marble,”  and  the  lintels  of  the 
doors  were  not  “carved,”  in  our  sense  of  the  word. 
They  were,  however,  beautifully  finished,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  illustrations,  and  the  white  granite 
might  easily  pass  for  marble.  If  only  we  could  find 
in  this  vicinity  that  Temple  of  the  Sun  which 
Calancha  said  was  “near”  Uiticos,  all  doubts  would 
be  at  an  end. 

That  night  we  stayed  at  Tincochaca,  in  the  hut  of 
an  Indian  friend  of  Mogrovejo.  As  usual  we  made 
inquiries.  Imagine  our  feelings  when  in  response  to 
the  oft-repeated  question  he  said  that  in  a neighbor- 
ing valley  there  was  a great  white  rock  over  a spring 
of  water!  If  his  story  should  prove  to  be  true  our 
quest  for  Uiticos  was  over.  It  behooved  us  to  make 
a very  careful  study  of  what  we  had  found. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  FORTRESS  OF  UITICOS  AND  THE  HOUSE 
OF  THE  SUN 

WHEN  the  viceroy,  Toledo,  determined  to  con- 
quer that  last  stronghold  of  the  Incas  where 
for  thirty-five  years  they  had  defied  the  supreme 
power  of  Spain,  he  offered  a thousand  dollars  a 
year  as  a pension  to  the  soldier  who  would  capture 
Tupac  Amaru.  Captain  Garcia  earned  the  pension, 
but  failed  to  receive  it;  the  “man ana  habit”  was 
already  strong  in  the  days  of  Philip  II.  So  the 
doughty  captain  filed  a collection  of  testimonials 
with  Philip’s  Royal  Council  of  the  Indies.  Among 
these  is  his  own  statement  of  what  happened  on  the 
campaign  against  Tupac  Amaru.  In  this  he  says: 
* ‘and  having  arrived  at  the  principal  fortress,  Guay- 
napucara  [“the  young  fortress”],  which  the  Incas 
had  fortified,  we  found  it  defended  by  the  Prince 
Philipe  Quispetutio,  a son  of  the  Inca  Titu  Cusi, 
with  his  captains  and  soldiers.  It  is  on  a high  emi- 
nence surrounded  with  rugged  crags  and  jungles, 
very  dangerous  to  ascend  and  almost  impregnable. 
Nevertheless,  with  my  aforesaid  company  of  sol- 
diers I went  up  and  gained  the  fortress,  but  only 
with  the  greatest  possible  labor  and  danger.  Thus 
we  gained  the  province  of  Uilcapampa.”  The 
viceroy  himself  says  this  important  victory  was 
due  to  Captain  Garcia’s  skill  and  courage  in  storm- 


242 


INCA  LAND 


ing  the  heights  of  Guaynapucara,  “on  Saint  John 
the  Baptist’s  day,  in  1572.” 

The  “Hill  of  Roses”  is  indeed  “a  high  eminence 
surrounded  with  rugged  crags.”  The  side  of  easiest 
approach  is  protected  by  a splendid,  long  wall,  built 
so  carefully  as  not  to  leave  a single  toe-hold  for 
active  besiegers.  The  barracks  at  Uncapampa  could 
have  furnished  a contingent  to  make  an  attack  on 
that  side  very  dangerous.  The  hill  is  steep  on  all 
sides,  and  it  would  have  been  extremely  easy  for  a 
small  force  to  have  defended  it.  It  was  undoubtedly 
“almost  impregnable.”  This  was  the  feature  Cap- 
tain Garcia  was  most  likely  to  remember. 

On  the  very  summit  of  the  hill  are  the  ruins  of  a 
partly  enclosed  compound  consisting  of  thirteen 
or  fourteen  houses  arranged  so  as  to  form  a rough 
square,  with  one  large  and  several  small  courtyards. 
The  outside  dimensions  of  the  compound  are  about 
160  feet  by  145  feet.  The  builders  showed  the 
familiar  Inca  sense  of  symmetry  in  arranging  the 
houses.  Due  to  the  wanton  destruction  of  many 
buildings  by  the  natives  in  their  efforts  at  treasure- 
hunting, the  walls  have  been  so  pulled  down  that 
it  is  impossible  to  get  the  exact  dimensions  of  the 
buildings.  In  only  one  of  them  could  we  be  sure 
that  there  had  been  any  niches. 

Most  interesting  of  all  is  the  structure  which 
caught  the  attention  of  Ocampo  and  remained  fixed 
in  his  memory.  Enough  remains  of  this  building  to 
give  a good  idea  of  its  former  grandeur.  It  was 
indeed  a fit  residence  for  a royal  Inca,  an  exile  from 
Cuzco.  It  is  245  feet  by  43  feet.  There  were  no 


PRINCIPAL  DOORWAY  OF  THE  ANOTHER  DOORWAY  IN  THE 

LONG  PALACE  AT  ROSASPATA  RUINS  OF  ROSASPATA 


THE  FORTRESS  OF  UITICOS  243 

windows,  but  it  was  lighted  by  thirty  doorways, 
fifteen  in  front  and  the  same  in  back.  It  contained 
ten  large  rooms,  besides  three  hallways  running 
from  front  to  rear.  The  walls  were  built  rather 
hastily  and  are  not  noteworthy,  but  the  principal 
entrances,  namely,  those  leading  to  each  hall,  are 
particularly  well  made;  not,  to  be  sure,  of  “marble” 
as  Ocampo  said  — there  is  no  marble  in  the  prov- 
ince — but  of  finely  cut  ashlars  of  white  granite. 
The  lintels  of  the  principal  doorways,  as  well  as  of 
the  ordinary  ones,  are  also  of  solid  blocks  of  white 
granite,  the  largest  being  as  much  as  eight  feet  in 
length.  The  doorways  are  better  than  any  other 
ruins  in  Uilcapampa  except  those  of  Machu  Picchu, 
thus  justifying  the  mention  of  them  made  by 
Ocampo,  who  lived  near  here  and  had  time  to 
become  thoroughly  familiar  with  their  appearance. 
Unfortunately,  a very  small  portion  of  the  edifice 
was  still  standing.  Most  of  the  rear  doors  had  been 
filled  up  with  ashlars,  in  order  to  make  a continuous 
fence.  Other  walls  had  been  built  from  the  ruins,  to 
keep  cattle  out  of  the  cultivated  pampa . Rosaspata 
is  at  an  elevation  which  places  it  on  the  borderland 
between  the  cold  grazing  country,  with  its  root 
crops  and  sublimated  pigweeds,  and  the  temperate 
zone  where  maize  flourishes. 

On  the  south  side  of  the  hilltop,  opposite  the  long 
palace,  is  the  ruin  of  a single  structure,  78  feet  long 
and  35  feet  wide,  containing  doors  on  both  sides,  no 
niches  and  no  evidence  of  careful  workmanship. 
It  was  probably  a barracks  for  a company  of  sol- 
diers. 


244 


INCA  LAND 


The  intervening  “ pampa,”  might  have  been  the 
scene  of  those  games  of  bowls  and  quoits,  which 
were  played  by  the  Spanish  refugees  who  fled  from 
the  wrath  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro  and  found  refuge  with 
the  Inca  Manco.  Here  may  have  occurred  that 
fatal  game  when  one  of  the  players  lost  his  temper 
and  killed  his  royal  host. 

Our  excavations  in  1915  yielded  a mass  of  rough 
potsherds,  a few  Inca  whirl-bobs  and  bronze  shawl 
pins,  and  also  a number  of  iron  articles  of  European 
origin,  heavily  rusted  — horseshoe  nails,  a buckle,  a 
pair  of  scissors,  several  bridle  or  saddle  ornaments, 
and  three  Jew’s-harps.  My  first  thought  was  that 
modern  Peruvians  must  have  lived  here  at  one  time, 
although  the  necessity  of  carrying  all  water  supplies 
up  the  hill  would  make  this  unlikely.  Furthermore, 
the  presence  here  of  artifacts  of  European  origin 
does  not  of  itself  point  to  such  a conclusion.  In  the 
first  place,  we  know  that  Manco  was  accustomed  to 
make  raids  on  Spanish  travelers  between  Cuzco  and 
Lima.  He  might  very  easily  have  brought  back 
with  him  a Spanish  bridle.  In  the  second  place  the 
musical  instruments  may  have  belonged  to  the 
refugees,  who  might  have  enjoyed  whiling  away 
their  exile  with  melancholy  twanging.  In  the  third 
place  the  retainers  of  the  Inca  probably  visited  the 
Spanish  market  in  Cuzco,  where  there  would  have 
been  displayed  at  times  a considerable  assortment 
of  goods  of  European  manufacture.  Finally  Rodri- 
guez de  Figueroa  speaks  expressly  of  two  pairs  of 
scissors  he  brought  as  a present  to  Titu  Cusi.  That 
no  such  array  of  European  artifacts  has  been  turned 


THE  FORTRESS  OF  UITICOS  245 

up  in  the  excavations  of  other  important  sites  in  the 
province  of  Uilcapampa  would  seem  to  indicate 
that  they  were  abandoned  before  the  Spanish  Con- 
quest or  else  were  occupied  by  natives  who  had  no 
means  of  accumulating  such  treasures. 

Thanks  to  Ocampo’s  description  of  the  fortress 
which  Tupac  Amaru  was  occupying  in  1572  there 
is  no  doubt  that  this  was  the  palace  of  the  last  Inca. 
Was  it  also  the  capital  of  his  brothers,  Titu  Cusi  and 
Sayri  Tupac,  and  his  father,  Manco?  It  is  astonish- 
ing how  few  details  we  have  by  which  the  Uiticos 
of  Manco  may  be  identified.  His  contemporaries 
are  strangely  silent.  When  he  left  Cuzco  and  sought 
refuge  "in  the  remote  fastnesses  of  the  Andes,” 
there  was  a Spanish  soldier,  Cieza  de  Leon,  in  the 
armies  of  Pizarro  who  had  a genius  for  seeing  and 
hearing  interesting  things  and  writing  them  down, 
and  who  tried  to  interview  as  many  members  of 
the  royal  family  as  he  could ; — Manco  had  thir- 
teen brothers.  Ciezo  de  Leon  says  he  was  much  dis- 
appointed not  to  be  able  to  talk  with  Manco  himself 
and  his  sons,  but  they  had  "retired  into  the  prov- 
inces of  Uiticos,  which  are  in  the  most  retired  part 
of  those  regions,  beyond  the  great  Cordillera  of  the 
Andes.”  1 The  Spanish  refugees  who  died  as  the 
result  of  the  murder  of  Manco  may  not  have  known 
how  to  write.  Anyhow,  so  far  as  we  can  learn  they 
left  no  accounts  from  which  any  one  could  identify 
his  residence. 

1 In  those  days  the  term  “ Andes”  appears  to  have  been  very  lim- 
ited in  scope,  and  was  applied  only  to  the  high  range  north  of  Cuzco 
where  lived  the  tribe  called  Antis.  Their  name  was  given  to  the  range. 
Its  culminating  point  was  Mt.  Salcantay. 


INCA  LAND 


246 

Titu  Cusi  gives  no  definite  clue,  but  the  activities 
of  Friar  Marcos  and  Friar  Diego,  who  came  to  be 
his  spiritual  advisers,  are  fully  described  by  Ca- 
lancha.  It  will  be  remembered  that  Calancha  re- 
marks that  “ close  to  Uiticos  in  a village  called  Chu- 
quipalpa,  is  a House  of  the  Sun  and  in  it  a white 
stone  over  a spring  of  water.”  Our  guide  had  told 
us  there  was  such  a place  close  to  the  hill  of  Rosas- 
pata. 

On  the  day  after  making  the  first  studies  of  the 
“Hill  of  Roses,”  I followed  the  impatient  Mogro- 
vejo  — whose  object  was  not  to  study  ruins  but  to 
earn  dollars  for  finding  them  — and  went  over  the 
hill  on  its  northeast  side  to  the  Valley  of  Los 
Andenes  (“the  Terraces ”).  Here,  sure  enough,  was  a 
large,  white  granite  boulder,  flattened  on  top,  which 
had  a carved  seat  or  platform  on  its  northern  side. 
Its  west  side  covered  a cave  in  which  were  several 
niches.  This  cave  had  been  walled  in  on  one  side. 
When  Mogrovejo  and  the  Indian  guide  said  there 
was  a manantial  de  agua  (“spring  of  water”)  near 
by,  I became  greatly  interested.  On  investigation, 
however,  the  “spring”  turned  out  to  be  nothing  but 
part  of  a small  irrigating  ditch.  (. Manantial  means 
“spring”;  it  also  means  “running  water”).  But 
the  rock  was  not  “over  the  water.”  Although  this 
was  undoubtedly  one  of  those  huacas , or  sacred 
boulders,  selected  by  the  Incas  as  the  visible  repre- 
sentations of  the  founders  of  a tribe  and  thus  was 
an  important  accessory  to  ancestor  worship,  it  was 
not  the  Yurak  Rumi  for  which  we  were  looking. 

Leaving  the  boulder  and  the  ruins  of  what  pos- 


NORTHEAST  FAOE  OF  YURAK  RUMT 


THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  SUN 


247 


sibly  had  been  the  house  of  its  attendant  priest, 
we  followed  the  little  water  course  past  a large 
number  of  very  handsomely  built  agricultural  ter- 
races, the  first  we  had  seen  since  leaving  Machu 
Picchu  and  the  most  important  ones  in  the  valley. 
So  scarce  are  andenes  in  this  region  and  so  note- 
worthy were  these  in  particular  that  this  vale  has 
been  named  after  them.  They  were  probably  built 
under  the  direction  of  Manco.  Near  them  are  a 
number  of  carved  boulders,  huacas.  One  had  an 
intihuatana , or  sundial  nubbin,  on  it;  another  was 
carved  in  the  shape  of  a saddle.  Continuing,  we 
followed  a trickling  stream  through  thick  woods 
until  we  suddenly  arrived  at  an  open  place  called 
Nusta  Isppana.  Here  before  us  was  a great  white 
rock  over  a spring.  Our  guides  had  not  misled  us. 
Beneath  the  trees  were  the  ruins  of  an  Inca  temple, 
flanking  and  partly  enclosing  the  gigantic  granite 
boulder,  one  end  of  which  overhung  a small  pool  of 
running  water.  When  we  learned  that  the  present 
name  of  this  immediate  vicinity  is  Chuquipalta  our 
happiness  was  complete. 

It  was  late  on  the  afternoon  of  August  9,  1911, 
when  I first  saw  this  remarkable  shrine.  Densely 
wooded  hills  rose  on  every  side.  There  was  not  a 
hut  to  be  seen;  scarcely  a sound  to  be  heard.  It 
was  an  ideal  place  for  practicing  the  mystic  cere- 
monies of  an  ancient  cult.  The  remarkable  aspect 
of  this  great  boulder  and  the  dark  pool  beneath 
its  shadow  had  caused  this  to  become  a place  of 
worship.  Here,  without  doubt,  was  “the  principal 
mochadero  of  those  forested  mountains.”  It  is  still 


INCA  LAND 


248 

venerated  by  the  Indians  of  the  vicinity.  At  last 
we  had  found  the  place  where,  in  the  days  of  Titu 
Cusi,  the  Inca  priests  faced  the  east,  greeted  the 
rising  sun,  “ extended  their  hands  toward  it,”  and 
“ threw  kisses  to  it,”  “a  ceremony  of  the  most  pro- 
found resignation  and  reverence.”  We  may  imag- 
ine the  sun  priests,  clad  in  their  resplendent  robes 
of  office,  standing  on  the  top  of  the  rock  at  the 
edge  of  its  steepest  side,  their  faces  lit  up  with  the 
rosy  light  of  the  early  morning,  awaiting  the  mo- 
ment when  the  Great  Divinity  should  appear  above 
the  eastern  hills  and  receive  their  adoration.  As  it 
rose  they  saluted  it  and  cried:  “O  Sun!  Thou  who 
art  in  peace  and  safety,  shine  upon  us,  keep  us  from 
sickness,  and  keep  us  in  health  and  safety.  O Sun! 
Thou  who  hast  said  let  there  be  Cuzco  and  Tampu, 
grant  that  these  children  may  conquer  all  other 
people.  We  beseech  thee  that  thy  children  the  Incas 
may  be  always  conquerors,  since  it  is  for  this  that 
thou  hast  created  them.” 

It  was  during  Titu  Cusi’s  reign  that  Friars  Marcos 
and  Diego  marched  over  here  with  their  converts 
from  Puquiura,  each  carrying  a stick  of  firewood. 
Calancha  says  the  Indians  worshiped  the  water  as 
a divine  thing,  that  the  Devil  had  at  times  shown 
himself  in  the  water.  Since  the  surface  of  the  little 
pool,  as  one  gazes  at  it,  does  not  reflect  the  sky,  but 
only  the  overhanging,  dark,  mossy  rock,  the  water 
looks  black  and  forbidding,  even  to  unsuperstitious 
Yankees.  It  is  easy  to  believe  that  simple-minded 
Indian  worshipers  in  this  secluded  spot  could  readily 
believe  that  they  actually  saw  the  Devil  appearing 


TEMPLE  OF  THE  SUN 


AT 

NUSTA  ISPPANA 

FORMERLY  YURAK  RUM1  IN  CHUQUIPALPA 


NEAR 

UTTICOS 


SCALE  OF  FEET 


THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  SUN 


249 


“ as  a visible  manifestation”  in  the  water.  Indians 
came  from  the  most  sequestered  villages  of  the 
dense  forests  to  worship  here  and  to  offer  gifts  and 
sacrifices.  Nevertheless,  the  Augustinian  monks  here 
raised  the  standard  of  the  cross,  recited  their  orisons, 
and  piled  firewood  all  about  the  rock  and  temple. 
Exorcising  the  Devil  and  calling  him  by  all  the  vile 
names  they  could  think  of,  the  friars  commanded 
him  never  to  return.  Setting  fire  to  the  pile,  they 
burned  up  the  temple,  scorched  the  rock,  making  a 
powerful  impression  on  the  Indians  and  causing 
the  poor  Devil  to  flee,  “ roaring  in  a fury.”  “The 
cruel  Devil  never  more  returned  to  the  rock  nor 
to  this  district.”  Whether  the  roaring  which  they 
heard  was  that  of  the  Devil  or  of  the  flames  we  can 
only  conjecture.  Whether  the  conflagration  tempo- 
rarily dried  up  the  swamp  or  interfered  with  the 
arrangements  of  the  water  supply  so  that  the  pool 
disappeared  for  the  time  being  and  gave  the  Devil 
no  chance  to  appear  in  the  water,  where  he  had 
formerly  been  accustomed  to  show  himself,  is  also 
a matter  for  speculation. 

The  buildings  of  the  House  of  the  Sun  are  in  a 
very  ruinous  state,  but  the  rock  itself,  with  its  curi- 
ous carvings,  is  well  preserved  notwithstanding  the 
great  conflagration  of  1570.  Its  length  is  fifty- two 
feet,  its  width  thirty  feet,  and  its  height  above  the 
present  level  of  the  water,  twenty-five  feet.  On 
the  west  side  of  the  rock  are  seats  and  large  steps  or 
platforms.  It  was  customary  to  kill  llamas  at  these 
holy  huacas.  On  top  of  the  rock  is  a flattened  place 
which  may  have  been  used  for  such  sacrifices.  From 


250 


INCA  LAND 


it  runs  a little  crack  in  the  boulder,  which  has  been 
artificially  enlarged  and  may  have  been  intended  to 
carry  off  the  blood  of  the  victim  killed  on  top  of  the 
rock.  It  is  still  used  for  occult  ceremonies  of  obscure 
origin  which  are  quietly  practiced  here  by  the  more 
superstitious  Indian  women  of  the  valley,  possibly 
in  memory  of  the  Nusta  or  Inca  princess  for  whom 
the  shrine  is  named. 

On  the  south  side  of  the  monolith  are  several  large 
platforms  and  four  or  five  small  seats  which  have 
been  cut  in  the  rock.  Great  care  was  exercised  in 
cutting  out  the  platforms.  The  edges  are  very 
nearly  square,  level,  and  straight.  The  east  side  of 
the  rock  projects  over  the  spring.  Two  seats  have 
been  carved  immediately  above  the  water.  On  the 
north  side  there  are  no  seats.  Near  the  water,  steps 
have  been  carved.  There  is  one  flight  of  three  and 
another  of  seven  steps.  Above  them  the  rock  has 
been  flattened  artificially  and  carved  into  a very 
bold  relief.  There  are  ten  projecting  square  stones, 
like  those  usually  called  intihuatana  or  “ places  to 
which  the  sun  is  tied.”  In  one  line  are  seven;  one  is 
slightly  apart  from  the  six  others.  The  other  three 
are  arranged  in  a triangular  position  above  the 
seven.  It  is  significant  that  these  stones  are  on  the 
northeast  face  of  the  rock,  where  they  are  exposed  to 
the  rising  sun  and  cause  striking  shadows  at  sunrise. 

Our  excavations  yielded  no  artifacts  whatever 
and  only  a handful  of  very  rough  old  potsherds  of 
uncertain  origin.  The  running  water  under  the 
rock  was  clear  and  appeared  to  be  a spring,  but  when 
we  drained  the  swamp  which  adjoins  the  great  rock 


CARVED  SEATS  AND  PLATFORMS  OF  NUSTA  ISPPANA 


TWO  OF  THE  SEVEN  SEATS  NEAR  THE  SPRING  UNDER 
THE  GREAT  WHITE  ROCK 


; 


THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  SUN 


251 


on  its  northeastern  side,  we  found  that  the  spring 
was  a little  higher  up  the  hill  and  that  the  water  ran 
through  the  dark  pool.  We  also  found  that  what 
looked  like  a stone  culvert  on  the  borders  of  the 
little  pool  proved  to  be  the  top  of  the  back  of  a row 
of  seven  or  eight  very  fine  stone  seats.  The  platform 
on  which  the  seats  rested  and  the  seats  themselves 
are  parts  of  three  or  four  large  rocks  nicely  fitted 
together.  Some  of  the  seats  are  under  the  black 
shadows  of  the  overhanging  rock.  Since  the  pool 
was  an  object  of  fear  and  mystery  the  seats  were 
probably  used  only  by  priests  or  sorcerers.  It  would 
have  been  a splendid  place  to  practice  divination. 
No  doubt  the  devils  “roared.” 

All  our  expeditions  in  the  ancient  province  of 
Uilcapampa  have  failed  to  disclose  the  presence 
of  any  other  “white  rock  over  a spring  of  water’ ’ 
surrounded  by  the  ruins  of  a possible  “House  of  the 
Sun.”  Consequently  it  seems  reasonable  to  adopt 
the  following  conclusions:  First , Nusta  Isppana  is 
the  Yurak  Rumi  of  Father  Calancha.  The  Chuqui- 
palta  of  to-day  is  the  place  to  which  he  refers  as 
Chuquipalpa.  Second,  Uiticos,  “close  to”  this  shrine, 
was  once  the  name  of  the  present  valley  of  Vilca- 
bamba  between  Tincochaca  and  Lucma.  This  is  the 
“Viticos”  of  Cieza  de  Leon,  a contemporary  of 
Manco,  who  says  that  it  was  to  the  province  of  Viti- 
cos that  Manco  determined  to  retire  when  he  re- 
belled against  Pizarro,  and  that  “having  reached 
Viticos  with  a great  quantity  of  treasure  collected 
from  various  parts,  together  with  his  women  and 
retinue,  the  king,  Manco  Inca,  established  himself 


252 


INCA  LAND 


in  the  strongest  place  he  could  find,  whence  he 
sallied  forth  many  times  and  in  many  directions 
and  disturbed  those  parts  which  were  quiet,  to  do 
what  harm  he  could  to  the  Spaniards,  whom  he  con- 
sidered as  cruel  enemies.”  Third , the  “strongest 
place”  of  Cieza,  the  Guaynapucari  of  Garcia,  was 
Rosaspata,  referred  to  by  Ocampo  as  “the  fortress 
of  Pitcos,”  where,  he  says,  “there  was  a level  space 
with  majestic  buildings,”  the  most  noteworthy 
feature  of  which  was  that  they  had  two  kinds  of 
doors  and  both  kinds  had  white  stone  lintels.  Fourth , 
the  modern  village  of  Pucyura  in  the  valley  of  the 
river  Vilcabamba  is  the  Puquiura  of  Father  Ca- 
lancha,  the  site  of  the  first  mission  church  in  this 
region,  as  assumed  by  Raimondi,  although  he  was 
disappointed  in  the  insignificance  of  the  “wretched 
little  village.”  The  remains  of  the  old  quartz-crush- 
ing plant  in  Tincochaca,  which  has  already  been 
noted,  the  distance  from  the  “House  of  the  Sun,” 
not  too  great  for  the  religious  procession,  and  the 
location  of  Pucyura  near  the  fortress,  all  point  to 
the  correctness  of  this  conclusion. 

Finally,  Calancha  says  that  Friar  Ortiz,  after  he 
had  secured  permission  from  Titu  Cusi  to  establish 
the  second  missionary  station  in  Uilcapampa,  se- 
lected “the  town  of  Huarancalla,  which  was  popu- 
lous and  well  located  in  the  midst  of  a number  of 
other  little  towns  and  villages.  There  was  a distance 
of  two  or  three  days’  journey  from  one  convent  to 
the  other.  Leaving  Friar  Marcos  in  Puquiura,  Friar 
Diego  went  to  his  new  establishment,  and  in  a short 
time  built  a church.”  There  is  no  “Huarancalla” 


THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  SUN 


253 


to-day,  nor  any  tradition  of  any,  but  in  Mapillo,  a 
pleasant  valley  at  an  elevation  of  about  10,000  feet, 
in  the  temperate  zone  where  the  crops  with  which 
the  Incas  were  familiar  might  have  been  raised, 
near  pastures  where  llamas  and  alpacas  could  have 
flourished,  is  a place  called  Huarancalque.  The 
valley  is  populous  and  contains  a number  of  little 
towns  and  villages.  Furthermore,  Huarancalque  is 
two  or  three  days’  journey  from  Pucyura  and  is 
on  the  road  which  the  Indians  of  this  region  now 
use  in  going  to  Ayacucho.  This  was  undoubtedly 
the  route  used  by  Manco  in  his  raids  on  Spanish 
caravans.  The  Mapillo  flows  into  the  Apurimac 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Pampas.  Not  far  up 
the  Pampas  is  the  important  bridge  between  Bom- 
bon  and  Ocros,  which  Mr.  Hay  and  I crossed  in 
1909  on  our  way  from  Cuzco  to  Lima.  The  city  of 
Ayacucho  was  founded  by  Pizarro,  a day’s  journey 
from  this  bridge.  The  necessity  for  the  Spanish  cara- 
vans to  cross  the  river  Pampas  at  this  point  made  it 
easy  for  Manco’s  foraging  expeditions  to  reach  them 
by  sudden  marches  from  Uiticos  down  the  Mapillo 
River  by  way  of  Huarancalque,  which  is  probably 
the  “ Huarancalla”  of  Calancha’s  “Chronicles.”  He 
must  have  had  rafts  or  canoes  on  which  to  cross 
the  Apurimac,  which  is  here  very  wide  and  deep. 
In  the  valleys  between  Huarancalque  and  Lucma, 
Manco  was  cut  off  from  central  Peru  by  the  Apuri- 
mac and  its  magnificent  canyon,  which  in  many 
places  has  a depth  of  over  two  miles.  He  was  cut  off 
from  Cuzco  by  the  inhospitable  snow  fields  and 
glaciers  of  Salcantay,  Soray,  and  the  adjacent  ridges, 


254 


INCA  LAND 


even  though  they  are  only  fifty  miles  from  Cuzco. 
Frequently  all  the  passes  are  completely  snow- 
blocked.  Fatalities  have  been  known  even  in  recent 
years.  In  this  mountainous  province  Manco  could 
be  sure  of  finding  not  only  security  from  his  Spanish 
enemies,  but  any  climate  that  he  desired  and  an 
abundance  of  food  for  his  followers.  There  seems  to 
be  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  retired  region  around 
the  modern  town  of  Pucyura  in  the  upper  Vilca- 
bamba  Valley  was  once  called  Uiticos. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


VILCABAMBA 


LTHOUGH  the  refuge  of  Manco  is  frequently 


spoken  of  as  Uiticos  by  the  contemporary 
writers,  the  word  Vilcabamba,  or  Uilcapampa,  is 
used  even  more  often.  In  fact  Garcilasso,  the  chief 
historian  of  the  Incas,  himself  the  son  of  an  Inca 
princess,  does  not  mention  Uiticos.  Vilcabamba  was 
the  common  name  of  the  province.  Father  Calan- 
cha  says  it  was  a very  large  area,  “covering  four- 
teen degrees  of  longitude,”  about  seven  hundred 
miles  wide.  It  included  many  savage  tribes  “of  the 
far  interior”  who  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of 
the  Incas  and  brought  tribute  to  Manco  and  his 
sons.  “The  Manaries  and  the  Pilcosones  came  a 
hundred  and  two  hundred  leagues”  to  visit  the  Inca 
in  Uiticos. 

The  name,  Vilcabamba,  is  also  applied  repeatedly 
to  a town.  Titu  Cusi  says  he  lived  there  many  years 
during  his  youth.  Calancha  says  it  was  “two  days’ 
journey  from  Puquiura.”  Raimondi  thought  it  must 
be  Choqquequirau.  Captain  Garcia’s  soldiers,  how- 
ever, speak  of  it  as  being  down  in  the  warm  valleys 
of  the  montana , the  present  rubber  country.  On  the 
other  hand  the  only  place  which  bears  this  name  on 
the  maps  of  Peru  is  near  the  source  of  the  Vilca- 
bamba River,  not  more  than  three  or  four  leagues 
from  Pucyura.  We  determined  to  visit  it. 


INCA  LAND 


256 

We  found  the  town  to  lie  on  the  edge  of  bleak 
upland  pastures,  11,750  feet  above  the  sea.  Instead 
of  Inca  walls  or  ruins  Vilcabamba  has  threescore 
solidly  built  Spanish  houses.  At  the  time  of  our  visit 
they  were  mostly  empty,  although  their  roofs,  of 
unusually  heavy  thatch,  seemed  to  be  in  good  repair. 
We  stayed  at  the  house  of  the  gobernador , Manuel 
Condor^.  The  nights  were  bitterly  cold  and  we 
should  have  been  most  uncomfortable  in  a tent. 

The  gobernador  said  that  the  reason  the  town  was 
deserted  was  that  most  of  the  people  were  now 
attending  to  their  chacras , or  little  farms,  and  look- 
ing after  their  herds  of  sheep  and  cattle  in  the  neigh- 
boring valleys.  He  said  that  only  at  special  festival 
times,  such  as  the  annual  visit  of  the  priest,  who 
celebrates  mass  in  the  church  here,  once  a year , are 
the  buildings  fully  occupied.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  gold  mines  were  discovered  in 
the  adjacent  mountains  and  the  capital  of  the  Span- 
ish province  of  Vilcabamba  was  transferred  from 
Hoyara  to  this  place.  Its  official  name,  Condor6 
said,  is  still  San  Francisco  de  la  Victoria  de  Vilca- 
bamba, and  as  such  it  occurs  on  most  of  the  early 
maps  of  Peru.  The  solidity  of  the  stone  houses  was 
due  to  the  prosperity  of  the  gold  diggers.  The  pres- 
ent air  of  desolation  and  absence  of  population  is 
probably  due  to  the  decay  of  that  industry. 

The  church  is  large.  Near  it,  and  slightly  apart 
from  the  building,  is  a picturesque  stone  belfry  with 
three  old  Spanish  bells.  Condore  said  that  the 
church  was  built  at  least  three  hundred  years  ago. 
It  is  probably  the  very  structure  whose  construction 


NUSTA  ISPPANA 


VILCABAMBA 


257 


was  carefully  supervised  by  Ocampo.  In  the  nego- 
tiations for  permission  to  move  the  municipality  of 
San  Francisco  de  la  Victoria  from  Hoyara  to  the 
neighborhood  of  the  mines,  Ocampo,  then  one  of  the 
chief  settlers,  went  to  Cuzco  as  agent  of  the  inter- 
ested parties,  to  take  the  matter  up  with  the  viceroy. 
Ocampo’s  story  is  in  part  as  follows: 

“The  change  of  site  appeared  convenient  for  the 
service  of  God  our  Lord  and  of  his  Majesty,  and  for 
the  increase  of  his  royal  fifths,  as  well  as  beneficial 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  said  city.  Having  examined 
the  capitulations  and  reasons,  the  said  Don  Luis  de 
Velasco  [the  viceroy]  granted  the  licence  to  move 
the  city  to  where  it  is  now  founded,  ordering  that  it 
should  have  the  title  and  name  of  the  city  of  San 
Francisco  of  the  Victory  of  Uilcapampa,  which  was 
its  first  name.  By  this  change  of  site  I,  the  said 
Baltasar  de  Ocampo,  performed  a great  service  to 
God  our  Lord  and  his  Majesty.  Through  my  care, 
industry  and  solicitude,  a very  good  church  was 
built,  with  its  principal  chapel  and  great  doors.” 
We  found  the  walls  to  be  heavy,  massive,  and  well 
buttressed,  the  doors  to  be  unusually  large  and  the 
whole  to  show  considerable  “ industry  and  solicitude.” 
The  site  was  called  “ Onccoy,  where  the  Spaniards 
who  first  discovered  this  land  found  the  flocks  and 
herds.”  Modern  Vilcabamba  is  on  grassy  slopes, 
well  suited  for  flocks  and  herds.  On  the  steeper 
slopes  potatoes  are  still  raised,  although  the  valley 
itself  is  given  up  to-day  almost  entirely  to  pasture 
lands.  We  saw  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  in  abun- 
dance where  the  Incas  must  have  pastured  their 


INCA  LAND 


258 

llamas  and  alpacas.  In  the  rocky  cliffs  near  by  are 
remains  of  the  mines  begun  in  Ocampo’s  day.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  this  was  Onccoy,  although  that 
name  is  now  no  longer  used  here. 

We  met  at  the  gobernador' s an  old  Indian  who 
admitted  that  an  Inca  had  once  lived  on  Rosaspata 
Hill.  Of  all  the  scores  of  persons  whom  we  in- 
terviewed through  the  courtesy  of  the  intelligent 
planters  of  the  region  or  through  the  customary 
assistance  of  government  officials,  this  Indian  was 
the  only  one  to  make  such  an  admission.  Even  he 
denied  having  heard  of  “Uiticos”  or  any  of  its 
variations.  If  we  were  indeed  in  the  country  of 
Manco  and  his  sons,  why  should  no  one  be  familiar 
with  that  name? 

Perhaps,  after  all,  it  is  not  surprising.  The  In- 
dians of  the  highlands  have  now  for  so  many  genera- 
tions been  neglected  by  their  rulers  and  brutalized 
by  being  allowed  to  drink  all  the  alcohol  they  can 
purchase  and  to  assimilate  all  the  cocaine  they  can 
secure,  through  the  constant  chewing  of  coca  leaves, 
that  they  have  lost  much  if  not  all  of  their  racial 
self-respect.  It  is  the  educated  mestizos  of  the  princi- 
pal modern  cities  of  Peru  who,  tracing  their  descent 
not  only  from  the  Spanish  soldiers  of  the  Conquest, 
but  also  from  the  blood  of  the  race  which  was  con- 
quered, take  pride  in  the  achievements  of  the  Incas 
and  are  endeavoring  to  preserve  the  remains  of  the 
wonderful  civilization  of  their  native  ancestors. 
Until  quite  recently  Vilcabamba  was  an  unknown 
land  to  most  of  the  Peruvians,  even  those  who  live 
in  the  city  of  Cuzco.  Had  the  capital  of  the  last  four 


VILCABAMBA 


259 


Incas  been  in  a region  whose  climate  appealed  to 
Europeans,  whose  natural  resources  were  sufficient 
to  support  a large  population,  and  whose  roads  made 
transportation  no  more  difficult  than  in  most  parts 
of  the  Andes,  it  would  have  been  occupied  from  the 
days  of  Captain  Garcia  to  the  present  by  Spanish- 
speaking mestizos , who  might  have  been  interested 
in  preserving  the  name  of  the  ancient  Inca  capital 
and  the  traditions  connected  with  it. 

After  the  mines  which  attracted  Ocampo  and  his 
friends  “petered  out/’  or  else,  with  the  primitive 
tools  of  the  sixteenth  century,  ceased  to  yield  ade- 
quate returns,  the  Spaniards  lost  interest  in  that 
remote  region.  The  rude  trails  which  connected 
Pucyura  with  Cuzco  and  civilization  were  at  best 
dangerous  and  difficult.  They  were  veritably  im- 
passable during  a large  part  of  the  year  even  to 
people  accustomed  to  Andean  “roads.” 

The  possibility  of  raising  sugar  cane  and  coca  be- 
tween Huadquina  and  Santa  Ana  attracted  a few 
Spanish-speaking  people  to  live  in  the  lower  Uru- 
bamba  Valley,  notwithstanding  the  difficult  trans- 
portation over  the  passes  near  Mts.  Salcantay  and 
Veronica;  but  there  was  nothing  to  lead  any  one 
to  visit  the  upper  Vilcabamba  Valley  or  to  desire  to 
make  it  a place  of  residence.  And  until  Senor  Pan- 
corbo  opened  the  road  to  Lucma,  Pucyura  was  ex- 
tremely difficult  of  access.  Nine  generations  of  In- 
dians lived  and  died  in  the  province  of  Uilcapampa 
between  the  time  of  Tupac  Amaru  and  the  arrival 
of  the  first  modern  explorers.  The  great  stone 
buildings  constructed  on  the  “Hill  of  Roses”  in  the 


260 


INCA  LAND 


days  of  Manco  and  his  sons  were  allowed  to  fall  into 
ruin.  Their  roofs  decayed  and  disappeared.  The 
names  of  those  who  once  lived  here  were  known  to 
fewer  and  fewer  of  the  natives.  The  Indians  them- 
selves had  no  desire  to  relate  the  story  of  the  various 
forts  and  palaces  to  their  Spanish  landlords,  nor  had 
the  latter  any  interest  in  hearing  such  tales.  It  was 
not  until  the  renaissance  of  historical  and  geograph- 
ical curiosity,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  that  it 
occurred  to  any  one  to  look  for  Manco’s  capital. 
When  Raimondi,  the  first  scientist  to  penetrate 
Vilcabamba,  reached  Pucyura,  no  one  thought  to 
tell  him  that  on  the  hilltop  opposite  the  village  once 
lived  the  last  of  the  Incas  and  that  the  ruins  of  their 
palaces  were  still  there,  hidden  underneath  a thick 
growth  of  trees  and  vines. 

A Spanish  document  of  1598  says  the  first  town 
of  “San  Francisco  de  la  Victoria  de  Vilcabamba ” 
was  in  the  “valley  of  Viticos.”  The  town’s  long 
name  became  shortened  to  Vilcabamba.  Then  the 
river  which  flowed  past  was  called  the  Vilcabamba, 
and  is  so  marked  on  Raimondi’s  map.  Uiticos  had 
long  since  passed  from  the  memory  of  man. 

Furthermore,  the  fact  that  we  saw  no  llamas  or 
alpacas  in  the  upland  pastures,  but  only  domestic 
animals  of  European  origin,  would  also  seem  to 
indicate  that  for  some  reason  or  other  this  region 
had  been  abandoned  by  the  Indians  themselves.  It 
is  difficult  to  believe  that  if  the  Indians  had  in- 
habited these  valleys  continuously  from  Inca  times 
to  the  present  we  should  not  have  found  at  least  a 
few  of  the  indigenous  American  camels  here.  By 


VILCABAMBA 


261 


itself,  such  an  occurrence  would  hardly  seem  worth 
a remark,  but  taken  in  connection  with  the  loss  of 
traditions  regarding  Uiticos,  it  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  there  must  have  been  quite  a long  period 
of  time  in  which  no  persons  of  consequence  lived 
in  this  vicinity. 

We  are  told  by  the  historians  of  the  colonial  period 
that  the  mining  operations  of  the  first  Spanish 
settlers  were  fatal  to  at  least  a million  Indians.  It 
is  quite  probable  that  the  introduction  of  ordinary 
European  contagious  diseases,  such  as  measles, 
chicken  pox,  and  smallpox,  may  have  had  a great 
deal  to  do  with  the  destruction  of  a large  proportion 
of  those  unfortunates  whose  untimely  deaths  were 
attributed  by  historians  to  the  very  cruel  practices 
of  the  early  Spanish  miners  and  treasure  seekers. 
Both  causes  undoubtedly  contributed  to  the  result. 
There  seems  to  be  no  question  that  the  population 
diminished  enormously  in  early  colonial  days.  If 
this  is  true,  the  remaining  population  would  nat- 
urally have  sought  regions  where  the  conditions  of 
existence  and  human  intercourse  were  less  severe 
and  rigorous  than  in  the  valleys  of  Uiticos  and 
Uilcapampa. 

The  students  and  travelers  of  the  late  nineteenth 
and  early  twentieth  centuries,  including  such  a care- 
ful observer  as  Bandelier,  are  of  the  opinion  that  the 
present-day  population  in  the  Andes  of  Peru  and 
Bolivia  is  about  as  great  as  that  at  the  time  of  the 
Conquest.  In  other  words,  with  the  decay  of  early 
colonial  mining  and  the  consequent  disappearance 
of  bad  living  conditions  and  forced  labor  at  the 


262 


INCA  LAND 


mines,  also  with  the  rise  of  partial  immunity  to 
European  diseases,  and  the  more  comfortable  condi- 
tions of  existence  which  have  followed  the  coming 
of  Peruvian  independence,  it  is  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose that  the  number  of  highland  Indians  has  in- 
creased. With  this  increase  has  come  a consequent 
crowding  in  certain  localities.  There  would  be  a 
natural  tendency  to  seek  less  crowded  regions,  even 
at  the  expense  of  using  difficult  mountain  trails. 
This  would  lead  to  their  occupying  as  remote  and 
inaccessible  a region  as  the  ancient  province  of 
Uilcapampa.  It  is  probable  that  after  the  gold 
mines  ceased  to  pay,  and  before  the  demand  for 
rubber  caused  the  San  Miguel  Valley  to  be  appro- 
priated by  the  white  man,  there  was  a period  of 
nearly  three  hundred  years  when  no  one  of  educa- 
tion or  of  intelligence  superior  to  the  ordinary  In- 
dian shepherd  lived  anywhere  near  Pucyura  or 
Lucma.  The  adobe  houses  of  these  modern  villages 
look  fairly  modern.  They  may  have  been  built  in 
the  nineteenth  century. 

Such  a theory  would  account  for  the  very  small 
amount  of  information  prevailing  in  Peru  regarding 
the  region  where  we  had  been  privileged  to  find  so 
many  ruins.  This  ignorance  led  the  Peruvian  geog- 
raphers Raimondi  and  Paz  Soldan  to  conclude  that 
Choqquequirau,  the  only  ruins  reported  between 
the  Apurimac  and  the  Urubamba,  must  have  been 
the  capital  of  the  Incas  who  took  refuge  there. 
1 1 also  makes  it  seem  more  reasonable  that  the  exist- 
ence of  Rosaspata  and  Nusta  Isppana  should  not 
have  been  known  to  Peruvian  geographers  and 


VILCABAMBA  263 

historians,  or  even  to  the  government  officials  who 
lived  in  the  adjacent  villages. 

We  felt  sure  we  had  found  Uiticos;  nevertheless  it 
was  quite  apparent  that  we  had  not  yet  found  all 
the  places  which  were  called  Vilcabamba.  Examina- 
tion of  the  writers  of  the  sixteenth  century  shows 
that  there  may  have  been  three  places  bearing  that 
name;  one  spoken  of  by  Calancha  as  Vilcabamba 
Viejo  (“the  old  ”),  another  also  so  called  by  Ocampo, 
and  a third  founded  by  the  Spaniards,  namely,  the 
town  we  were  now  in.  The  story  of  the  first  is  given 
in  Calancha’s  account  of  the  trials  and  tribulations 
of  Friar  Marcos  and  the  martyrdom  of  Friar  Diego 
Ortiz.  The  chronicler  tells  with  considerable  detail 
of  their  visit  to  “Vilcabamba  Viejo.”  It  was  after 
the  monks  had  already  founded  their  religious  es- 
tablishment at  Puquiura  that  they  learned  of  the 
existence  of  this  important  religious  center.  They 
urged  Titu  Cusi  to  permit  them  to  visit  it.  For  a 
long  time  he  refused.  Its  whereabouts  remained 
unknown  to  them,  but  its  strategic  position  as  a 
religious  stronghold  led  them  to  continue  their  de- 
mands. Finally,  either  to  rid  himself  of  their  im- 
portunities or  because  he  imagined  the  undertaking 
might  be  made  amusing,  he  yielded  to  their  requests 
and  bade  them  prepare  for  the  journey.  Calancha 
says  that  the  Inca  himself  accompanied  the  two 
friars,  with  a number  of  his  captains  and  chieftains, 
taking  them  from  Puquiura  over  a very  rough  and 
rugged  road.  The  Inca,  however,  did  not  suffer  from 
the  character  of  the  trail  because,  like  the  Roman 
generals  of  old,  he  was  borne  comfortably  along  in  a 


INCA  LAND 


264 

litter  by  servants  accustomed  to  this  duty.  The  un- 
fortunate missionaries  were  obliged  to  go  on  foot. 
The  wet,  rocky  trail  soon  demoralized  their  foot- 
gear. When  they  came  to  a particularly  bad  place 
in  the  road,  “ Ungacacha ,”  the  trail  went  for  some 
distance  through  water.  The  monks  were  forced  to 
wade.  The  water  was  very  cold.  The  Inca  and  his 
chieftains  were  amused  to  see  how  the  friars  were 
hampered  by  their  monastic  garments  while  passing 
through  the  water.  However,  the  monks  persevered, 
greatly  desiring  to  reach  their  goal,  “on  account  of 
its  being  the  largest  city  in  which  was  the  Univer- 
sity of  Idolatry,  where  lived  the  teachers  who  were 
wizards  and  masters  of  abomination.”  If  one  may 
judge  by  the  name  of  the  place,  Uilcapampa,  the 
wizards  and  sorcerers  were  probably  aided  by 
the  powerful  effects  of  the  ancient  snuff  made  from 
huilca  seeds.  After  a three  days’  journey  over  very 
rough  country,  the  monks  arrived  at  their  destina- 
tion. Yet  even  then  Titu  Cusi  was  unwilling  that 
they  should  live  in  the  city,  but  ordered  that  the 
monks  be  given  a dwelling  outside,  so  that  they 
might  not  witness  the  ceremonies  and  ancient  rites 
which  were  practiced  by  the  Inca  and  his  captains 
and  priests. 

Nothing  is  said  about  the  appearance  of  “Vilca- 
bamba  Viejo”  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  monks 
were  ever  allowed  to  see  the  city,  although  they 
reached  its  vicinity.  Here  they  stayed  for  three 
weeks  and  kept  up  their  preaching  and  teaching. 
During  their  stay  Titu  Cusi,  who  had  not  wished  to 
bring  them  here,  got  his  revenge  by  annoying  them 


VILCABAMBA 


265 


in  various  ways.  He  was  particularly  anxious  to 
make  them  break  their  vows  of  celibacy.  Calancha 
says  that  after  consultation  with  his  priests  and 
soothsayers  Titu  Cusi  selected  as  tempters  the  most 
beautiful  Indian  women,  including  some  individuals 
of  the  Yungas  who  were  unusually  attractive.  It  is 
possible  that  these  women,  who  lived  at  the  “ Uni- 
versity of  Idolatry”  in  “Vilcabamba  Viejo,”  were 
“ Virgins  of  the  Sun,”  who  were  under  the  orders  of 
the  Inca  and  his  high  priests  and  were  selected  from 
the  fairest  daughters  of  the  empire.  It  is  also  evi- 
dent that  “Vilcabamba  Viejo”  was  so  constructed 
that  the  monks  could  be  kept  for  three  weeks  in  its 
vicinity  without  being  able  to  see  what  was  going 
on  in  the  city  or  to  describe  the  kinds  of  “abomina- 
tions” which  were  practiced  there,  as  they  did  those 
at  the  white  rock  of  Chuquipalta.  As  will  be  shown 
later,  it  is  possible  that  this  Vilcabamba,  referred 
to  in  Calancha’s  story  as  “Vilcabamba  Viejo,”  was 
on  the  slopes  of  the  mountain  now  called  Machu 
Picchu. 

In  the  meantime  it  was  necessary  to  pursue  the 
hunt  for  the  ruins  of  Vilcabamba  called  “ the  old  ” 
by  Ocampo,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Spanish  town 
of  that  name  which  he  had  helped  to  found  after 
the  capture  of  Tupac  Amaru,  and  referred  to  merely 
as  Vilcabamba  by  Captain  Garcia  and  his  com- 
panions in  their  accounts  of  the  campaign. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

CONSERVIDAYOC 

WHEN  Don  Pedro  Duque  of  Santa  Ana  was 
helping  us  to  identify  places  mentioned  in 
Calancha  and  Ocampo,  the  references  to  “Vilca- 
bamba  Viejo/ * or  Old  Uilcapampa,  were  supposed 
by  two  of  his  informants  to  point  to  a place  called 
Conservidayoc.  Don  Pedro  told  us  that  in  1902 
Lopez  Torres,  who  had  traveled  much  in  the  mon- 
tana  looking  for  rubber  trees,  reported  the  discovery 
there  of  the  ruins  of  an  Inca  city.  All  of  Don  Pedro’s 
friends  assured  us  that  Conservidayoc  was  a terri- 
ble place  to  reach.  ‘‘No  one  now  living  had  been 
there.”  “It  was  inhabited  by  savage  Indians  who 
would  not  let  strangers  enter  their  villages.” 

When  we  reached  Paltaybamba,  Senor  Pancorbo’s 
manager  confirmed  what  we  had  heard.  He  said 
further  that  an  individual  named  Saavedra  lived 
at  Conservidayoc  and  undoubtedly  knew  all  about 
the  ruins,  but  was  very  averse  to  receiving  visitors. 
Saavedra’s  house  was  extremely  difficult  to  find. 
“No  one  had  been  there  recently  and  returned 
alive.”  Opinions  differed  as  to  how  far  away  it  was. 

Several  days  later,  while  Professor  Foote  and  I 
were  studying  the  ruins  near  Rosaspata,  Senor 
Pancorbo,  returning  from  his  rubber  estate  in  the 
San  Miguel  Valley  and  learning  at  Lucma  of  our 
presence  near  by,  took  great  pains  to  find  us  and  see 


CONSERVIDAYOC 


267 


how  we  were  progressing.  When  he  learned  of  our 
intention  to  search  for  the  ruins  of  Conservidayoc, 
he  asked  us  to  desist  from  the  attempt.  He  said 
Saavedra  was  “a  very  powerful  man  having  many 
Indians  under  his  control  and  living  in  grand  state, 
with  fifty  servants,  and  not  at  all  desirous  of  be- 
ing visited  by  anybody.’’  The  Indians  were  “of 
the  Campa  tribe,  very  wild  and  extremely  savage. 
They  use  poisoned  arrows  and  are  very  hostile  to 
strangers.”  Admitting  that  he  had  heard  there  were 
Inca  ruins  near  Saavedra’s  station,  Senor  Pancorbo 
still  begged  us  not  to  risk  our  lives  by  going  to  look 
for  them. 

By  this  time  our  curiosity  was  thoroughly  aroused. 
We  were  familiar  with  the  current  stories  regarding 
the  habits  of  savage  tribes  who  lived  in  the  montana 
and  whose  services  were  in  great  demand  as  rubber 
gatherers.  We  had  even  heard  that  Indians  did  not 
particularly  like  to  work  for  Senor  Pancorbo,  who 
was  an  energetic,  ambitious  man,  anxious  to  achieve 
many  things,  results  which  required  more  laborers 
than  could  easily  be  obtained.  We  could  readily 
believe  there  might  possibly  be  Indians  at  Conservi- 
dayoc who  had  escaped  from  the  rubber  estate  of 
San  Miguel.  Undoubtedly,  Senor  Pancorbo’s  own 
life  would  have  been  at  the  mercy  of  their  poisoned 
arrows.  All  over  the  Amazon  Basin  the  exigencies 
of  rubber  gatherers  had  caused  tribes  visited  with 
impunity  by  the  explorers  of  the  nineteenth  century 
to  become  so  savage  and  revengeful  as  to  lead  them 
to  kill  all  white  men  at  sight. 

Professor  Foote  and  I considered  the  matter  in  all 


268 


INCA  LAND 


its  aspects.  We  finally  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
in  view  of  the  specific  reports  regarding  the  presence 
of  Inca  ruins  at  Conservidayoc  we  could  not  afford 
to  follow  the  advice  of  the  friendly  planter.  We 
must  at  least  make  an  effort  to  reach  them,  mean- 
while taking  every  precaution  to  avoid  arousing  the 
enmity  of  the  powerful  Saavedra  and  his  savage 
retainers. 

On  the  day  following  our  arrival  at  the  town  of 
Vilcabamba,  the  gobernador , Condore,  taking  coun- 
sel with  his  chief  assistant,  had  summoned  the  wis- 
est Indians  living  in  the  vicinity,  including  a very 
picturesque  old  fellow  whose  name,  Quispi  Cusi,  was 
strongly  reminiscent  of  the  days  of  Titu  Cusi.  It 
was  explained  to  him  that  this  was  a very  solemn 
occasion  and  that  an  official  inquiry  was  in  progress. 
He  took  off  his  hat  — but  not  his  knitted  cap  — and 
endeavored  to  the  best  of  his  ability  to  answer  our 
questions  about  the  surrounding  country.  It  was 
he  who  said  that  the  Inca  Tupac  Amaru  once  lived 
at  Rosaspata.  He  had  never  heard  of  Uilcapampa 
Viejo,  but  he  admitted  that  there  were  ruins  in  the 
montana  near  Conservidayoc.  Other  Indians  were 
questioned  by  Condore.  Several  had  heard  of  the 
ruins  of  Conservidayoc,  but,  apparently,  none  of 
them,  nor  any  one  in  the  village,  had  actually  seen 
the  ruins  or  visited  their  immediate  vicinity. 
They  all  agreed  that  Saavedra’s  place  was  “at  least 
four  days’  hard  journey  on  foot  in  the  montana 
beyond  Pampaconas.”  No  village  of  that  name 
appeared  on  any  map  of  Peru,  although  it  is  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  documents  of  the  six- 


THE  PAMPACONAS  RIVER 


CON  SERVI  DAY  OC 


269 


teenth  century.  Rodriguez  de  Figueroa,  who  came 
to  seek  an  audience  with  Titu  Cusi  about  1565,  says 
that  he  met  Titu  Cusi  at  a place  called  Banbaconas. 
He  says  further  that  the  Inca  came  there  from  some- 
where down  in  the  dense  forests  of  the  montana  and 
presented  him  with  a macaw  and  two  hampers  of 
peanuts  — products  of  a warm  region. 

We  had  brought  with  us  the  large  sheets  of  Rai- 
mondi’s invaluable  map  which  covered  this  locality. 
We  also  had  the  new  map  of  South  Peru  and  North 
Bolivia  which  had  just  been  published  by  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society  and  gave  a summary  of  all 
available  information.  The  Indians  said  that  Con- 
servidayoc  lay  in  a westerly  direction  from  Vilca- 
bamba,  yet  on  Raimondi’s  map  all  of  the  rivers 
which  rise  in  the  mountains  west  of  the  town  are 
short  affluents  of  the  Apurimac  and  flow  southwest. 
We  wondered  whether  the  stories  about  ruins  at 
Conservidayoc  would  turn  out  to  be  as  barren  of 
foundation  as  those  we  had  heard  from  the  trust- 
worthy foreman  at  Huadquina.  One  of  our  inform- 
ants said  the  Inca  city  was  called  Espiritu  Pampa, 
or  the  “ Pampa  of  Ghosts.”  Would  the  ruins  turn  out 
to  be  '‘ghosts”?  Would  they  vanish  on  the  arrival 
of  white  men  with  cameras  and  steel  measuring 
tapes? 

No  one  at  Vilcabamba  had  seen  the  ruins,  but 
they  said  that  at  the  village  of  Pampaconas,  “about 
five  leagues  from  here,”  there  were  Indians  who  had 
actually  been  to  Conservidayoc.  Our  supplies  were 
getting  low.  There  were  no  shops  nearer  than 
Lucma;  no  food  was  obtainable  from  the  natives. 


270 


INCA  LAND 


Accordingly,  notwithstanding  the  protestations  of 
the  hospitable  gobernador , we  decided  to  start  im- 
mediately for  Conservidayoc. 

At  the  end  of  a long  day's  march  up  the  Vilca- 
bamba  Valley,  Professor  Foote,  with  his  accustomed 
skill,  was  preparing  the  evening  meal  and  we  were 
both  looking  forward  with  satisfaction  to  enjoying 
large  cups  of  our  favorite  beverage.  Several  years 
ago,  when  traveling  on  muleback  across  the  great 
plateau  of  southern  Bolivia,  I had  learned  the  value 
of  sweet,  hot  tea  as  a stimulant  and  bracer  in  the 
high  Andes.  At  first  astonished  to  see  how  much  tea 
the  Indian  arrieros  drank,  I learned  from  sad  experi- 
ence that  it  was  far  better  than  cold  water,  which 
often  brings  on  mountain-sickness.  This  particular 
evening,  one  swallow  of  the  hot  tea  caused  conster- 
nation. It  was  the  most  horrible  stuff  imaginable. 
Examination  showed  small,  oily  particles  floating  on 
the  surface.  Further  investigation  led  to  the  dis- 
covery that  one  of  our  arrieros  had  that  day  placed 
our  can  of  kerosene  on  top  of  one  of  the  loads.  The 
tin  became  leaky  and  the  kerosene  had  dripped 
down  into  a food  box.  A cloth  bag  of  granulated 
sugar  had  eagerly  absorbed  all  the  oil  it  could. 
There  was  no  remedy  but  to  throw  away  half  of  our 
supply.  As  I have  said,  the  longer  one  works  in  the 
Andes  the  more  desirable  does  sugar  become  and 
the  more  one  seems  to  crave  it.  Yet  we  were  unable 
to  procure  any  here. 

After  the  usual  delays,  caused  in  part  by  the  diffi- 
culty of  catching  our  mules,  which  had  taken  ad- 
vantage of  our  historical  investigations  to  stray  far 


CONSERVIDAYOC 


271 


up  the  mountain  pastures,  we  finally  set  out  from 
the  boundaries  of  known  topography,  headed  for 
“Conservidayoc,”  a vague  place  surrounded  with 
mystery;  a land  of  hostile  savages,  albeit  said  to 
possess  the  ruins  of  an  Inca  town. 

Our  first  day’s  journey  was  to  Pampaconas.  Here 
and  in  its  vicinity  the  gobernador  told  us  he  could 
procure  guides  and  the  half-dozen  carriers  whose 
services  we  should  require  for  the  jungle  trail  where 
mules  could  not  be  used.  As  the  Indians  hereabouts 
were  averse  to  penetrating  the  wilds  of  Conservi- 
dayoc  and  were  also  likely  to  be  extremely  alarmed 
at  the  sight  of  men  in  uniform,  the  two  gendarmes 
who  were  now  accompanying  us  were  instructed 
to  delay  their  departure  for  a few  hours  and  not  to 
reach  Pampaconas  with  our  pack  train  until  dusk. 
The  gobernador  said  that  if  the  Indians  of  Pampa- 
conas caught  sight  of  any  brass  buttons  coming  over 
the  hills  they  would  hide  so  effectively  that  it  would 
be  impossible  to  secure  any  carriers.  Apparently 
this  was  due  in  part  to  that  love  of  freedom  which 
had  led  them  to  abandon  the  more  comfortable 
towns  for  a frontier  village  where  landlords  could 
not  call  on  them  for  forced  labor.  Consequently, 
before  the  arrival  of  any  such  striking  manifesta- 
tions of  official  authority  as  our  gendarmes , the 
gobernador  and  his  friend  Mogrovejo  proposed  to 
put  in  the  day  craftily  commandeering  the  services 
of  a half-dozen  sturdy  Indians.  Their  methods  will 
be  described  presently. 

Leaving  modern  Vilcabamba,  we  crossed  the  flat, 
marshy  bottom  of  an  old  glaciated  valley,  in  which 


2J2 


INCA  LAND 


one  of  our  mules  got  thoroughly  mired  while  search- 
ing for  the  succulent  grasses  which  cover  the  treach- 
erous bog.  Fording  the  Vilcabamba  River,  which 
here  is  only  a tiny  brook,  we  climbed  out  of  the 
valley  and  turned  westward.  On  the  mountains 
above  us  were  vestiges  of  several  abandoned  mines. 
It  was  their  discovery  in  1572  or  thereabouts  which 
brought  Ocampo  and  the  first  Spanish  settlers  to 
this  valley.  Raimondi  says  that  he  found  here 
cobalt,  nickel,  silver-bearing  copper  ore,  and  lead 
sulphide.  He  does  not  mention  any  gold-bearing 
quartz.  It  may  have  been  exhausted  long  before  his 
day.  As  to  the  other  minerals,  the  difficulties  of 
transportation  are  so  great  that  it  is  not  likely  that 
mining  will  be  renewed  here  for  many  years  to  come. 

At  the  top  of  the  pass  we  turned  to  look  back  and 
saw  a long  chain  of  snow-capped  mountains  tower- 
ing above  and  behind  the  town  of  Vilcabamba.  We 
searched  in  vain  for  them  on  our  maps.  Raimondi, 
followed  by  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  did  not 
leave  room  enough  for  such  a range  to  exist  between 
the  rivers  Apurimac  and  Urubamba.  Mr.  Hendrik- 
sen  determined  our  longitude  to  be  730  west,  and 
our  latitude  to  be  130  8'  south.  Yet  according  to 
the  latest  map  of  this  region,  published  in  the 
preceding  year,  this  was  the  very  position  of  the 
river  Apurimac  itself,  near  its  junction  with  the  river 
Pampas.  We  ought  to  have  been  swimming  “the 
Great  Speaker.”  Actually  we  were  on  top  of  a lofty 
mountain  pass  surrounded  by  high  peaks  and  gla- 
ciers. The  mystery  was  finally  solved  by  Mr.  Bum- 
stead  in  1912,  when  he  determined  the  Apurimac 


CONSERVIDAYOC 


273 


and  the  Urubamba  to  be  thirty  miles  farther  apart 
than  any  one  had  supposed.  His  surveys  opened  an 
unexplored  region,  1500  square  miles  in  extent,  whose 
very  existence  had  not  been  guessed  before  1911. 
It  proved  to  be  one  of  the  largest  undescribed  gla- 
ciated areas  in  South  America.  Yet  it  is  less  than  a 
hundred  miles  from  Cuzco,  the  chief  city  in  the 
Peruvian  Andes,  and  the  site  of  a university  for 
more  than  three  centuries.  That  Uilcapampa  could 
so  long  defy  investigation  and  exploration  shows 
better  than  anything  else  how  wisely  Manco  had 
selected  his  refuge.  It  is  indeed  a veritable  labyrinth 
of  snow-clad  peaks,  unknown  glaciers,  and  trackless 
canyons. 

Looking  west,  we  saw  in  front  of  us  a great  wil- 
derness of  deep  green  valleys  and  forest-clad  slopes. 
We  supposed  from  our  maps  that  we  were  now  look- 
ing down  into  the  basin  of  the  Apurimac.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  we  were  on  the  rim  of  the  valley 
of  the  hitherto  uncharted  Pampaconas,  a branch  of 
the  Cosireni,  one  of  the  affluents  of  the  Urubamba. 
Instead  of  being  the  Apurimac  Basin,  what  we  saw 
was  another  unexplored  region  which  drained  into 
the  Urubamba! 

At  the  time,  however,  we  did  not  know  where  we 
were,  but  understood  from  Condore  that  somewhere 
far  down  in  the  montana  below  us  was  Conservi- 
dayoc,  the  sequestered  domain  of  Saavedra  and  his 
savage  Indians.  It  seemed  less  likely  than  ever  that 
the  Incas  could  have  built  a town  so  far  away  from 
the  climate  and  food  to  which  they  were  accustomed. 
The  “road”  was  now  so  bad  that  only  with  the 


274 


INCA  LAND 


greatest  difficulty  could  we  coax  our  sure-footed 
mules  to  follow  it.  Once  we  had  to  dismount,  as 
the  path  led  down  a long,  steep,  rocky  stairway  of 
ancient  origin.  At  last,  rounding  a hill,  we  came  in 
sight  of  a lonesome  little  hut  perched  on  a shoulder 
of  the  mountain.  In  front  of  it,  seated  in  the  sun 
on  mats,  were  two  women  shelling  corn.  As  soon  as 
they  saw  the  gobernador  approaching,  they  stopped 
their  work  and  began  to  prepare  lunch.  It  was  about 
eleven  o'clock  and  they  did  not  need  to  be  told  that 
Senor  Condore  and  his  friends  had  not  had  anything 
but  a cup  of  coffee  since  the  night  before.  In  order 
to  meet  the  emergency  of  unexpected  guests  they 
killed  four  or  five  squealing  cuys  (guinea  pigs),  usu- 
ally to  be  found  scurrying  about  the  mud  floor  of 
the  huts  of  mountain  Indians.  Before  long  the  sa- 
vory odor  of  roast  cuyy  well  basted,  and  cooked- to- 
a-turn  on  primitive  spits,  whetted  our  appetites. 

In  the  eastern  United  States  one  sees  guinea  pigs 
only  as  pets  or  laboratory  victims;  never  as  an 
article  of  food.  In  spite  of  the  celebrated  dogma  that 
“Pigs  is  Pigs,”  this  form  of  “ pork”  has  never  found 
its  way  to  our  kitchens,  even  though  these  “ pigs  ” live 
on  a very  clean,  vegetable  diet.  Incidentally  guinea 
pigs  do  not  come  from  Guinea  and  are  in  no  way 
related  to  pigs  — Mr.  Ellis  Parker  Butler  to  the 
contrary  notwithstanding!  They  belong  rather  to 
the  same  family  as  rabbits  and  Belgian  hares  and 
have  long  been  a highly  prized  article  of  food  in 
the  Andes  of  Peru.  The  wild  species  are  of  a grayish 
brown  color,  which  enables  them  to  escape  observa- 
tion in  their  natural  habitat.  The  domestic  varie- 


CONSERVIDAYOC 


275 


ties,  which  one  sees  in  the  huts  of  the  Indians,  are 
piebald,  black,  white,  and  tawny,  varying  from  one 
another  in  color  as  much  as  do  the  llamas,  which 
were  also  domesticated  by  the  same  race  of  people 
thousands  of  years  ago.  Although  Anglo-Saxon 
“ folkways,”  as  Professor  Sumner  would  say,  permit 
us  to  eat  and  enjoy  long-eared  rabbits,  we  draw  the 
line  at  short-eared  rabbits,  yet  they  were  bred  to  be 
eaten. 

I am  willing  to  admit  that  this  was  the  first  time 
that  I had  ever  knowingly  tasted  their  delicate  flesh, 
although  once  in  the  capital  of  Bolivia  I thought 
the  hotel  kitchen  had  a diminishing  supply!  Had  I 
not  been  very  hungry,  I might  never  have  known 
how  delicious  a roast  guinea  pig  can  be.  The  meat  is 
not  unlike  squab.  To  the  Indians  whose  supply  of 
animal  food  is  small,  whose  fowls  are  treasured  for 
their  eggs,  and  whose  thin  sheep  are  more  valuable 
as  wool  bearers  than  as  mutton,  the  succulent  guin3a 
pig,  “most  prolific  of  mammals,”  as  was  discovered 
by  Mr.  Butler’s  hero,  is  a highly  valued  article  of 
food,  reserved  for  special  occasions.  The  North 
American  housewife  keeps  a few  tins  of  sardines 
and  cans  of  preserves  on  hand  for  emergencies.  Her 
sister  in  the  Andes  similarly  relies  on  fat  little  cuys. 

After  lunch,  Condore  and  Mogrovejo  divided  the 
extensive  rolling  countryside  between  them  and  each 
rode  quietly  from  one  lonesome  farm  to  another, 
looking  for  men  to  engage  as  bearers.  When  they 
were  so  fortunate  as  to  find  the  man  of  the  house  at 
home  or  working  in  his  little  chacra  they  greeted  him 
pleasantly.  When  he  came  forward  to  shake  hands, 


INCA  LAND 


276 

in  the  usual  Indian  manner,  a silver  dollar  was  un- 
suspectingly slipped  into  the  palm  of  his  right  hand 
and  he  was  informed  that  he  had  accepted  pay  for 
services  which  must  now  be  performed.  It  seemed 
hard,  but  this  was  the  only  way  in  which  it  was 
possible  to  secure  carriers. 

During  Inca  times  the  Indians  never  received  pay 
for  their  labor.  A paternal  government  saw  to  it 
that  they  were  properly  fed  and  clothed  and  either 
given  abundant  opportunity  to  provide  for  their 
own  necessities  or  else  permitted  to  draw  on  official 
stores.  In  colonial  days  a more  greedy  and  less 
paternal  government  took  advantage  of  the  ancient 
system  and  enforced  it  without  taking  pains  to  see 
that  it  should  not  cause  suffering.  Then,  for  genera- 
tions, thoughtless  landlords,  backed  by  local  author- 
ity, forced  the  Indians  to  work  without  suitably 
recompensing  them  at  the  end  of  their  labors  or  even 
pretending  to  carry  out  promises  and  wage  agree- 
ments. The  peons  learned  that  it  was  unwise  to 
perform  any  labor  without  first  having  received 
a considerable  portion  of  their  pay.  When  once  they 
accepted  money,  however,  their  own  custom  and 
the  law  of  the  land  provided  that  they  must  carry 
out  their  obligations.  Failure  to  do  so  meant  legal 
punishment. 

Consequently,  when  an  unfortunate  Pampaconas 
Indian  found  he  had  a dollar  in  his  hand,  he  be- 
moaned his  fate,  but  realized  that  service  was  inevi- 
table. In  vain  did  he  plead  that  he  was  “busy,” 
that  his  “crops  needed  attention,”  that  his  “family 
could  not  spare  him,”  that  “he  lacked  food  for  a 


CONSERVIDAYOC 


277 


journey.”  Condor^  and  Mogrovejo  were  accus- 
tomed to  all  varieties  of  excuses.  They  succeeded 
in  “engaging”  half  a dozen  carriers.  Before  dark  we 
reached  the  village  of  Pampaconas,  a few  small  huts 
scattered  over  grassy  hillsides,  at  an  elevation  of 
10,000  feet. 

In  the  notes  of  one  of  the  military  advisers  of 
Viceroy  Francisco  de  Toledo  is  a reference  to  Pam- 
paconas as  a “high,  cold  place.”  This  is  correct. 
Nevertheless,  I doubt  if  the  present  village  is  the 
Pampaconas  mentioned  in  the  documents  of  Gar- 
cia’s day  as  being  “an  important  town  of  the  Incas.” 
There  are  no  ruins  hereabouts.  The  huts  of  Pampa- 
conas were  newly  built  of  stone  and  mud,  and 
thatched  with  grass.  They  were  occupied  by  a group 
of  sturdy  mountain  Indians,  who  enjoyed  unusual 
freedom  from  official  or  other  interference  and  a 
good  place  in  which  to  raise  sheep  and  cultivate 
potatoes,  on  the  very  edge  of  the  dense  forest.  We 
found  that  there  was  some  excitement  in  the  village 
because  on  the  previous  night  a jaguar,  or  possibly  a 
cougar,  had  come  out  of  the  forest,  attacked,  killed, 
and  dragged  off  one  of  the  village  ponies. 

We  were  conducted  to  the  dwelling  of  a stocky, 
well-built  Indian  named  Guzman,  the  most  reliable 
man  in  the  village,  who  had  been  selected  to  be  the 
head  of  the  party  of  carriers  that  was  to  accompany 
us  to  Conservidayoc.  Guzman  had  some  Spanish 
blood  in  his  veins,  although  he  did  not  boast  of  it. 
With  his  wife  and  six  children  he  occupied  one  of  the 
best  huts.  A fire  in  one  corner  frequently  filled  it 
with  acrid  smoke.  It  was  very  small  and  had  no 


278 


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windows.  At  one  end  was  a loft  where  family  treas- 
ures could  be  kept  dry  and  reasonably  safe  from 
molestation.  Piles  of  sheep  skins  were  arranged  for 
visitors  to  sit  upon.  Three  or  four  rude  niches  in 
the  walls  served  in  lieu  of  shelves  and  tables.  The 
floor  of  well-trodden  clay  was  damp.  Three  mongrel 
dogs  and  a flea-bitten  cat  were  welcome  to  share 
the  narrow  space  with  the  family  and  their  visitors. 
A dozen  hogs  entered  stealthily  and  tried  to  avoid 
attention  by  putting  a muffler  on  involuntary  grunts. 
They  did  not  succeed  and  were  violently  ejected  by 
a boy  with  a whip;  only  to  return  again  and  again, 
each  time  to  be  driven  out  as  before,  squealing 
loudly.  Notwithstanding  these  interruptions,  we 
carried  on  a most  interesting  conversation  with 
Guzman.  He  had  been  to  Conservidayoc  and  had 
himself  actually  seen  ruins  at  Espiritu  Pampa.  At 
last  the  mythical  “ Pampa  of  Ghosts”  began  to  take 
on  in  our  minds  an  aspect  of  reality,  even  though 
we  were  careful  to  remind  ourselves  that  another 
very  trustworthy  man  had  said  he  had  seen  ruins 
11  finer  than  Ollantaytambo  ” near  Huadquina.  Guz- 
man did  not  seem  to  dread  Conservidayoc  as  much 
as  the  other  Indians,  only  one  of  whom  had  ever 
been  there.  To  cheer  them  up  we  purchased  a fat 
sheep,  for  which  we  paid  fifty  cents.  Guzman 
immediately  butchered  it  in  preparation  for  the  jour- 
ney. Although  it  was  August  and  the  middle  of  the 
dry  season,  rain  began  to  fall  early  in  the  after- 
noon. Sergeant  Carrasco  arrived  after  dark  with 
our  pack  animals,  but,  missing  the  trail  as  he  neared 
Guzman's  place,  one  of  the  mules  stepped  into  a bog 


CONSERVIDAYOC 


279 


and  was  extracted  only  with  considerable  difficulty. 

We  decided  to  pitch  our  small  pyramidal  tent  on  a 
fairly  well-drained  bit  of  turf  not  far  from  Guzman’s 
little  hut.  In  the  evening,  after  we  had  had  a long 
talk  with  the  Indians,  we  came  back  through  the 
rain  to  our  comfortable  little  tent,  only  to  hear  vari- 
ous and  sundry  grunts  emerging  therefrom.  We 
found  that  during  our  absence  a large  sow  and  six 
fat  young  pigs,  unable  to  settle  down  comfortably 
at  the  Guzman  hearth,  had  decided  that  our  tent 
was  much  the  driest  available  place  on  the  mountain 
side  and  that  our  blankets  made  a particularly 
attractive  bed.  They  had  considerable  difficulty 
in  getting  out  of  the  small  door  as  fast  as  they 
wished.  Nevertheless,  the  pouring  rain  and  the 
memory  of  comfortable  blankets  caused  the  pigs  to 
return  at  intervals.  As  we  were  starting  to  enjoy  our 
first  nap,  Guzman,  with  hospitable  intent,  sent  us 
two  bowls  of  steaming  soup,  which  at  first  glance 
seemed  to  contain  various  sizes  of  white  macaroni  — ■ 
a dish  of  which  one  of  us  was  particularly  fond. 
The  white  hollow  cylinders  proved  to  be  extraordi- 
narily tough,  not  the  usual  kind  of  macaroni.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  we  learned  that  the  evening  meal 
which  Guzman’s  wife  had  prepared  for  her  guests 
was  made  chiefly  of  sheep’s  entrails! 

Rain  continued  without  intermission  during  the 
whole  of  a very  cold  and  dreary  night.  Our  tent, 
which  had  never  been  wet  before,  leaked  badly;  the 
only  part  which  seemed  to  be  thoroughly  water- 
proof was  the  floor.  As  day  dawned  we  found  our- 
selves to  be  lying  in  puddles  of  water.  Everything 


280 


INCA  LAND 


was  soaked.  Furthermore,  rain  was  still  falling. 
While  we  were  discussing  the  situation  and  wonder- 
ing what  we  should  cook  for  breakfast,  the  faithful 
Guzman  heard  our  voices  and  immediately  sent  us 
two  more  bowls  of  hot  soup,  which  were  this  time 
more  welcome,  even  though  among  the  bountiful 
corn,  beans,  and  potatoes  we  came  unexpectedly 
upon  fragments  of  the  teeth  and  jaws  of  the  sheep. 
Evidently  in  Pampaconas  nothing  is  wasted. 

We  were  anxious  to  make  an  early  start  for  Con- 
servidayoc,  but  it  was  first  necessary  for  our  Indians 
to  prepare  food  for  the  ten  days'  journey  ahead  of 
them.  Guzman’s  wife,  and  I suppose  the  wives  of 
our  other  carriers,  spent  the  morning  grinding  chuno 
(frozen  potatoes)  with  a rocking  stone  pestle  on  a 
flat  stone  mortar,  and  parching  or  toasting  large 
quantities  of  sweet  corn  in  a terra-cotta  olla.  With 
chuno  and  tostado,  the  body  of  the  sheep,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  coca  leaves,  the  Indians  professed 
themselves  to  be  perfectly  contented.  Of  our  own 
provisions  we  had  so  small  a quantity  that  we 
were  unable  to  spare  any.  However,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  Indians  would  have  liked  them  as  much 
as  the  food  to  which  they  had  long  been  accustomed. 

Toward  noon,  all  the  Indian  carriers  but  one 
having  arrived,  and  the  rain  having  partly  subsided, 
we  started  for  Conservidayoc.  We  were  told  that 
it  would  be  possible  to  use  the  mules  for  this  day’s 
journey.  San  Fernando,  our  first  stop,  was  “seven 
leagues”  away,  far  down  in  the  densely  wooded 
Pampaconas  Valley.  Leaving  the  village  we  climbed 
up  the  mountain  back  of  Guzman’s  hut  and  fob 


CONSERVIDAYOC 


281 


lowed  a faint  trail  by  a dangerous  and  precarious 
route  along  the  crest  of  the  ridge.  The  rains  had  not 
improved  the  path.  Our  saddle  mules  were  of  little 
use.  We  had  to  go  nearly  all  the  way  on  foot. 
Owing  to  cold  rain  and  mist  we  could  see  but  little 
of  the  deep  canyon  which  opened  below  us,  and  into 
which  we  now  began  to  descend  through  the  clouds 
by  a very  steep,  zigzag  path,  four  thousand  feet  to 
a hot  tropical  valley.  Below  the  clouds  we  found 
ourselves  near  a small  abandoned  clearing.  Passing 
this  and  fording  little  streams,  we  went  along  a very 
narrow  path,  across  steep  slopes,  on  which  maize 
had  been  planted.  Finally  we  came  to  another  little 
clearing  and  two  extremely  primitive  little  shanties, 
mere  shelters  not  deserving  to  be  called  huts;  and 
this  was  San  Fernando,  the  end  of  the  mule  trail. 
There  was  scarcely  room  enough  in  them  for  our 
six  carriers.  It  was  with  great  difficulty  we  found 
and  cleared  a place  for  our  tent,  although  its  floor 
was  only  seven,  feet  square.  There  was  no  really 
flat  land  at  all. 

At  8:30  p.m.  August  13,  1911,  while  lying  on  the 
ground  in  our  tent,  I noticed  an  earthquake.  It 
was  felt  also  by  the  Indians  in  the  near-by  shelter, 
who  from  force  of  habit  rushed  out  of  their  frail 
structure  and  made  a great  disturbance,  crying  out 
that  there  was  a temblor.  Even  had  their  little 
thatched  roof  fallen  upon  them,  as  it  might  have 
done  during  the  stormy  night  which  followed,  they 
were  in  no  danger;  but,  being  accustomed  to  the 
stone  walls  and  red  tiled  roofs  of  mountain  villages 
where  earthquakes  sometimes  do  very  serious  harm, 


282 


INCA  LAND 


they  were  greatly  excited.  The  motion  seemed  to 
me  to  be  like  a slight  shuffle  from  west  to  east, 
lasting  three  or  four  seconds,  a gentle  rocking  back 
and  forth,  with  eight  or  ten  vibrations.  Several 
weeks  later,  near  Huadquina,  we  happened  to  stop 
at  the  Colpani  telegraph  office.  The  operator  said  he 
had  felt  two  shocks  on  August  13th  — one  at  five 
o’clock,  which  had  shaken  the  books  off  his  table 
and  knocked  over  a box  of  insulators  standing  along 
a wall  which  ran  north  and  south.  He  said  the  shock 
which  I had  felt  was  the  lighter  of  the  two. 

During  the  night  it  rained  hard,  but  our  tent  was 
now  adjusting  itself  to  the  “dry  season”  and  we 
were  more  comfortable.  Furthermore,  camping  out 
at  10,000  feet  above  sea  level  is  very  different  from 
camping  at  6000  feet.  This  elevation,  similar  to  that 
of  the  bridge  of  San  Miguel,  below  Machu  Picchu, 
is  on  the  lower  edge  of  the  temperate  zone  and  the 
beginning  of  the  torrid  tropics.  Sugar  cane,  peppers, 
bananas,  and  grenadillas  grow  here  as  well  as  maize, 
squashes,  and  sweet  potatoes.  None  of  these  things 
will  grow  at  Pampaconas.  The  Indians  who  raise 
sheep  and  white  potatoes  in  that  cold  region  come 
to  San  Fernando  to  make  chacras  or  small  clearings. 
The  three  or  four  natives  whom  we  found  here 
were  so  alarmed  by  the  sight  of  brass  buttons  that 
they  disappeared  during  the  night  rather  than  take 
the  chance  of  having  a silver  dollar  pressed  into 
their  hands  in  the  morning!  From  San  Fernando, 
we  sent  one  of  our  gendarmes  back  to  Pampaconas 
with  the  mules.  Our  carriers  were  good  for  about 
fifty  pounds  apiece. 


CONSERVIDAYOC  283 

Half  an  hour’s  walk  brought  us  to  Vista  Alegre, 
another  little  clearing  on  an  alluvial  fan  in  the  bend 
of  the  river.  The  soil  here  seemed  to  be  very  rich. 
In  the  chacra  we  saw  corn  stalks  eighteen  feet  in 
height,  near  a gigantic  tree  almost  completely 
enveloped  in  the  embrace  of  a mato-palo , or  para- 
sitic fig  tree.  This  clearing  certainly  deserves  its 
name,  for  it  commands  a “charming  view”  of  the 
green  Pampaconas  Valley.  Opposite  us  rose  ab- 
ruptly a heavily  forested  mountain,  whose  sum- 
mit was  lost  in  the  clouds  a mile  above.  To  circum- 
vent this  mountain  the  river  had  been  flowing  in  a 
westerly  direction ; now  it  gradually  turned  to  the 
northward.  Again  we  were  mystified;  for,  by  Rai- 
mondi’s map,  it  should  have  gone  southward. 

We  entered  a dense  jungle,  where  the  narrow  path 
became  more  and  more  difficult  for  our  carriers. 
Crawling  over  rocks,  under  branches,  along  slippery 
little  cliffs,  on  steps  which  had  been  cut  in  earth  or 
rock,  over  a trail  which  not  even  dogs  could  fol- 
low unassisted,  slowly  we  made  our  way  down  the 
valley.  Owing  to  the  heat,  humidity,  and  the  fre- 
quent showers,  it  was  mid-afternoon  before  we 
reached  another  little  clearing  called  Pacaypata. 
Here,  on  a hillside  nearly  a thousand  feet  above  the 
river,  our  men  decided  to  spend  the  night  in  a tiny 
little  shelter  six  feet  long  and  five  feet  wide.  Pro- 
fessor Foote  and  I had  to  dig  a shelf  out  of  the  steep 
hillside  in  order  to  pitch  our  tent. 

The  next  morning,  not  being  detained  by  the 
vagaries  of  a mule  train,  we  made  an  early  start. 
A.s  we  followed  the  faint  little  trail  across  the  gulches 


INCA  LAND 


284 

tributary  to  the  river  Pampaconas,  we  had  to  nego- 
tiate several  unusually  steep  descents  and  ascents. 
The  bearers  suffered  from  the  heat.  They  found  it 
more  and  more  difficult  to  carry  their  loads.  Twice 
we  had  to  cross  the  rapids  of  the  river  on  primitive 
bridges  which  consisted  only  of  a few  little  logs 
lashed  together  and  resting  on  slippery  boulders. 

By  one  o’clock  we  found  ourselves  on  a small 
plain  (ele.  4500  ft.)  in  dense  woods  surrounded  by 
tree  ferns,  vines,  and  tangled  thickets,  through  which 
it  was  impossible  to  see  for  more  than  a few  feet.  Here 
Guzman  told  us  we  must  stop  and  rest  a while,  as 
we  were  now  in  the  territory  of  los  salvages,  the  sav- 
age Indians  who  acknowledged  only  the  rule  of 
Saavedra  and  resented  all  intrusion.  Guzman  did 
not  seem  to  be  particularly  afraid,  but  said  that  we 
ought  to  send  ahead  one  of  our  carriers,  to  warn 
the  savages  that  we  were  coming  on  a friendly  mis- 
sion and  were  not  in  search  of  rubber  gatherers; 
otherwise  they  might  attack  us,  or  run  away  and 
disappear  into  the  jungle.  He  said  we  should  never 
be  able  to  find  the  ruins  without  their  help.  The 
carrier  who  was  selected  to  go  ahead  did  not  relish 
his  task.  Leaving  his  pack  behind,  he  proceeded 
very  quietly  and  cautiously  along  the  trail  and  was 
lost  to  view  almost  immediately.  There  followed  an 
exciting  half-hour  while  we  waited,  wondering  what 
attitude  the  savages  would  take  toward  us,  and 
trying  to  picture  to  ourselves  the  mighty  potentate, 
Saavedra,  who  had  been  described  as  sitting  in  the 
midst  of  savage  luxury,  “surrounded  by  fifty  serv- 
ants,” and  directing  his  myrmidons  to  checkmate 


CONSERVIDAYOC  285 

our  desires  to  visit  the  Inca  city  on  the  “pampa  of 
ghosts.” 

Suddenly,  we  were  startled  by  the  crackling  of 
twigs  and  the  sound  of  a man  running.  We  instinc- 
tively held  our  rifles  a little  tighter  in  readiness  for 
whatever  might  befall  — when  there  burst  out  of 
the  woods  a pleasant-faced  young  Peruvian,  quite 
conventionally  clad,  who  had  come  in  haste  from 
Saavedra,  his  father,  to  extend  to  us  a most  cordial 
welcome!  It  seemed  scarcely  credible,  but  a glance 
at  his  face  showed  that  there  was  no  ambush  in 
store  for  us.  It  was  with  a sigh  of  relief  that  we 
realized  there  was  to  be  no  shower  of  poisoned 
arrows  from  the  impenetrable  thickets.  Gathering 
up  our  packs,  we  continued  along  the  jungle  trail, 
through  woods  which  gradually  became  higher, 
deeper,  and  darker,  until  presently  we  saw  sunlight 
ahead  and,  to  our  intense  astonishment,  the  bright 
green  of  waving  sugar  cane.  A few  moments  of 
walking  through  the  cane  fields  found  us  at  a large 
comfortable  hut,  welcomed  very  simply  and  mod- 
estly by  Saavedra  himself.  A more  pleasant  and 
peaceable  little  man  it  was  never  my  good  fortune 
to  meet.  We  looked  furtively  around  for  his  fifty 
savage  servants,  but  all  we  saw  was  his  good- 
natured  Indian  wife,  three  or  four  small  children, 
and  a wild-eyed  maid-of-all-work,  evidently  the 
only  savage  present.  Saavedra  said  some  called  this 
place  “Jesus  Maria”  because  they  were  so  surprised 
when  they  saw  it. 

It  is  difficult  to  describe  our  feelings  as  we  ac- 
cepted Saavedra’s  invitation  to  make  ourselves  at 


286 


INCA  LAND 


home,  and  sat  down  to  an  abundant  meal  of  boiled 
chicken,  rice,  and  sweet  cassava  (manioc).  Saavedra 
gave  us  to  understand  that  we  were  not  only  most 
welcome  to  anything  he  had,  but  that  he  would  do 
everything  to  enable  us  to  see  the  ruins,  which  were, 
it  seemed,  at  Espiritu  Pampa,  some  distance  farther 
down  the  valley,  to  be  reached  only  by  a hard  trail 
passable  for  barefooted  savages,  but  scarcely  avail- 
able for  us  unless  we  chose  to  go  a good  part  of  the 
distance  on  hands  and  knees.  The  next  day,  while 
our  carriers  were  engaged  in  clearing  this  trail, 
Professor  Foote  collected  a large  number  of  insects, 
including  eight  new  species  of  moths  and  butterflies. 

I inspected  Saavedra’s  plantation.  The  soil  having 
lain  fallow  for  centuries,  and  being  rich  in  humus, 
had  produced  more  sugar  cane  than  he  could  grind. 
In  addition  to  this,  he  had  bananas,  coffee  trees, 
sweet  potatoes,  tobacco,  and  peanuts.  Instead  of 
being  “a  very  powerful  chief  having  many  Indians 
under  his  control”  — a kind  of  “ Pooh-Bah”  — he 
was  merely  a pioneer.  In  the  utter  wilderness,  far 
from  any  neighbors,  surrounded  by  dense  forests  and 
a few  savages,  he  had  established  his  home.  He  was 
not  an  Indian  potentate,  but  only  a frontiersman, 
soft-spoken  and  energetic,  an  ingenious  carpenter 
and  mechanic,  a modest  Peruvian  of  the  best  type. 

Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  arable  land  he  was 
obliged  to  cultivate  such  pampas  as  he  could  find  — 
one  an  alluvial  fan  near  his  house,  another  a natural 
terrace  near  the  river.  Back  of  the  house  was  a 
thatched  shelter  under  which  he  had  constructed  a 
little  sugar  mill.  It  had  a pair  of  hardwood  rollers, 


CONSERVIDAYOC 


287 


each  capable  of  being  turned,  with  much  creaking 
and  cracking,  by  a large,  rustic  wheel  made  of 
roughly  hewn  timbers  fastened  together  with 
wooden  pins  and  lashed  with  thongs,  worked  by 
hand  and  foot  power.  Since  Saavedra  had  been 
unable  to  coax  any  pack  animals  over  the  trail  to 
Conservidayoc  he  was  obliged  to  depend  entirely  on 
his  own  limited  strength  and  that  of  his  active  son, 
aided  by  the  uncertain  and  irregular  services  of  such 
savages  as  wished  to  work  for  sugar,  trinkets,  or 
other  trade  articles.  Sometimes  the  savages  seemed 
to  enjoy  the  fun  of  climbing  on  the  great  creaking 
tread  wheel,  as  though  it  were  a game.  At  other 
times  they  would  disappear  in  the  woods. 

Near  the  mill  were  some  interesting  large  pots 
which  Saavedra  was  using  in  the  process  of  boiling 
the  juice  and  making  crude  sugar.  He  said  he  had 
found  the  pots  in  the  jungle  not  far  away.  They  had 
been  made  by  the  Incas.  Four  of  them  were  of  the 
familiar  aryballus  type.  Another  was  of  a closely 
related  form,  having  a wide  mouth,  pointed  base, 
single  incised,  conventionalized,  animal-head  nub- 
bin attached  to  the  shoulder,  and  band-shaped 
handles  attached  vertically  below  the  median  line. 
Although  capable  of  holding  more  than  ten  gallons, 
this  huge  pot  was  intended  to  be  carried  on  the 
back  and  shoulders  by  means  of  a rope  passing 
through  the  handles  and  around  the  nubbin.  Saa- 
vedra said  that  he  had  found  near  his  house  several 
bottle-shaped  cists  lined  with  stones,  with  a flat 
stone  on  top  — evidently  ancient  graves.  The  bones 
had  entirely  disappeared.  The  cover  of  one  of  the 


288 


INCA  LAND 


graves  had  been  pierced;  the  hole  covered  with  a 
thin  sheet  of  beaten  silver.  He  had  also  found  a few 
stone  implements  and  two  or  three  small  bronze 
Inca  axes. 

On  the  pampa , below  his  house,  Saavedra  had 
constructed  with  infinite  labor  another  sugar  mill. 
It  seemed  strange  that  he  should  have  taken  the 
trouble  to  make  two  mills;  but  when  one  remem- 
bered that  he  had  no  pack  animals  and  was  usually 
obliged  to  bring  the  cane  to  the  mill  on  his  own  back 
and  the  back  of  his  son,  one  realized  that  it  was 
easier,  while  the  cane  was  growing,  to  construct  a 
new  mill  near  the  cane  field  than  to  have  to  carry 
the  heavy  bundles  of  ripe  cane  up  the  hill.  He  said 
his  hardest  task  was  to  get  money  with  which  to 
send  his  children  to  school  in  Cuzco  and  to  pay  his 
taxes.  The  only  way  in  which  he  could  get  any  cash 
was  by  making  chancaca , crude  brown  sugar,  and 
carrying  it  on  his  back,  fifty  pounds  at  a time,  three 
hard  days’  journey  on  foot  up  the  mountain  to  Pam- 
paconas  or  Vilcabamba,  six  or  seven  thousand  feet 
above  his  little  plantation.  He  said  he  could  usu- 
ally sell  such  a load  for  five  soles , equivalent  to  two 
dollars  and  a half ! His  was  certainly  a hard  lot,  but 
he  did  not  complain,  although  he  smilingly  admitted 
that  it  was  very  difficult  to  keep  the  trail  open,  since 
the  jungle  grew  so  fast  and  the  floods  in  the  river 
continually  washed  away  his  little  rustic  bridges. 
His  chief  regret  was  that  as  the  result  of  a recent 
revolution,  with  which  he  had  had  nothing  to  do, 
the  government  had  decreed  that  all  firearms  should 
be  turned  in,  and  so  he  had  lost  the  one  thing  he 


SAAVEDRA  AND  HIS  INCA  POTTERY 


INCA  GABLE  AT  ESPIRITU  PAMPA 


CONSERVIDAYOC 


289 

needed  to  enable  him  to  get  fresh  meat  in  the  forest. 

In  the  clearing  near  the  house  we  were  interested 
to  see  a large  turkey-like  bird,  the  pava  de  la  mon- 
tana , glossy  black,  its  most  striking  feature  a high, 
coral  red  comb.  Although  completely  at  liberty, 
it  seemed  to  be  thoroughly  domesticated.  It  would 
make  an  attractive  bird  for  introduction  into  our 
Southern  States. 

Saavedra  gave  us  some  very  black  leaves  of 
native  tobacco,  which  he  had  cured.  An  inveterate 
smoker  who  tried  it  in  his  pipe  said  it  was  without 
exception  the  strongest  stuff  he  ever  had  encoun- 
tered ! 

So  interested  did  I become  in  talking  with  Saa- 
vedra, seeing  his  plantation,  and  marveling  that  he 
should  be  worried  about  taxes  and  have  to  obey 
regulations  in  regard  to  firearms,  I had  almost 
forgotten  about  the  wild  Indians.  Suddenly  our 
carriers  ran  toward  the  house  in  a great  flurry  of 
excitement,  shouting  that  there  was  a “savage”  in 
the  bushes  near  by.  The  “wild  man”  was  very 
timid,  but  curiosity  finally  got  the  better  of  fear  and 
he  summoned  up  sufficient  courage  to  accept  Saa- 
vedra’s urgent  invitation  that  he  come  out  and  meet 
us.  He  proved  to  be  a miserable  specimen,  suffering 
from  a very  bad  cold  in  his  head.  It  has  been  my 
good  fortune  at  one  time  or  another  to  meet  primi- 
tive folk  in  various  parts  of  America  and  the  Pacific, 
but  this  man  was  by  far  the  dirtiest  and  most 
wretched  savage  that  I have  ever  seen. 

He  was  dressed  in  a long,  filthy  tunic  which  came 
nearly  to  his  ankles.  It  was  made  of  a large  square 


290 


INCA  LAND 


of  coarsely  woven  cotton  cloth,  with  a hole  in  the 
middle  for  his  head.  The  sides  were  stitched  up, 
leaving  holes  for  the  arms.  His  hair  was  long,  un- 
kempt, and  matted.  He  had  small,  deep-set  eyes, 
cadaverous  cheeks,  thick  lips,  and  a large  mouth. 
His  big  toes  were  unusually  long  and  prehensile. 
Slung  over  one  shoulder  he  carried  a small  knapsack 
made  of  coarse  fiber  net.  Around  his  neck  hung 
what  at  first  sight  seemed  to  be  a necklace  composed 
of  a dozen  stout  cords  securely  knotted  together. 
Although  I did  not  see  it  in  use,  I was  given  to 
understand  that  when  climbing  trees,  he  used  this 
stout  loop  to  fasten  his  ankles  together  and  thus 
secure  a tighter  grip  for  his  feet. 

By  evening  two  other  savages  had  come  in;  a 
young  married  man  and  his  little  sister.  Both  had 
bad  colds.  Saavedra  told  us  that  these  Indians  were 
Pichanguerras,  a subdivision  of  the  Campa  tribe. 
Saavedra  and  his  son  spoke  a little  of  their  language, 
which  sounded  to  our  unaccustomed  ears  like  a suc- 
cession of  low  grunts,  breathings,  and  gutturals. 
It  was  pieced  out  by  signs.  The  long  tunics  worn 
by  the  men  indicated  that  they  had  one  or  more 
wives.  Before  marrying  they  wear  very  scanty 
attire  — nothing  more  than  a few  rags  hanging 
over  one  shoulder  and  tied  about  the  waist.  The 
long  tunic,  a comfortable  enough  garment  to  wear 
during  the  cold  nights,  and  their  only  covering,  must 
impede  their  progress  in  the  jungle;  yet  they  live 
partly  by  hunting,  using  bows  and  arrows.  We 
learned  that  these  Pichanguerras  had  run  away  from 
the  rubber  country  in  the  lower  valleys;  that  they 


CONSERVIDAYOC 


291 


found  it  uncomfortably  cold  at  this  altitude,  4500 
feet,  but  preferred  freedom  in  the  higher  valleys  to 
serfdom  on  a rubber  estate. 

Saavedra  said  that  he  had  named  his  plantation 
Conservidayoc , because  it  was  in  truth  "a  spot  where 
one  may  be  preserved  from  harm.”  Such  was  the 
home  of  the  potentate  from  whose  abode  “no  one 
had  been  known  to  return  alive.” 


CHAPTER  XV 


THE  PAMPA  OF  GHOSTS 


WO  days  later  we  left  Conservidayoc  for  Espi- 


ritu  Pampa  by  the  trail  which  Saavedra's  son 
and  our  Pampaconas  Indians  had  been  clearing. 
We  emerged  from  the  thickets  near  a promontory 
where  there  was  a fine  view  down  the  valley  and 
particularly  of  a heavily  wooded  alluvial  fan  just 
below  us.  In  it  were  two  or  three  small  clearings 
and  the  little  oval  huts  of  the  savages  of  Espiritu 
Pampa,  the  “ Pampa  of  Ghosts.” 

On  top  of  the  promontory  was  the  ruin  of  a small, 
rectangular  building  of  rough  stone,  once  probably 
an  Inca  watch-tower.  From  here  to  Espiritu  Pampa 
our  trail  followed  an  ancient  stone  stairway,  about 
four  feet  in  width  and  nearly  a third  of  a mile  long. 
It  was  built  of  uncut  stones.  Possibly  it  was  the 
work  of  those  soldiers  whose  chief  duty  it  was  to 
watch  from  the  top  of  the  promontory  and  who  used 
their  spare  time  making  roads.  We  arrived  at  the 
principal  clearing  just  as  a heavy  thunder-shower 
began.  The  huts  were  empty.  Obviously  their  oc- 
cupants had  seen  us  coming  and  had  disappeared  in 
the  jungle.  We  hesitated  to  enter  the  home  of  a 
savage  without  an  invitation,  but  the  terrific  down- 
pour overcame  our  scruples,  if  not  our  nervousness. 
The  hut  had  a steeply  pitched  roof.  Its  sides  were 
made  of  small  logs  driven  endwise  into  the  ground 


THE  PAMPA  OF  GHOSTS 


293 


and  fastened  together  with  vines.  A small  fire  had 
been  burning  on  the  ground.  Near  the  embers  were 
two  old  black  ollas  of  Inca  origin. 

In  the  little  chacra , cassava,  coca , and  sweet  po- 
tatoes were  growing  in  haphazard  fashion  among 
charred  and  fallen  tree  trunks ; a typical  milpa  farm. 
In  the  clearing  were  the  ruins  of  eighteen  or  twenty 
circular  houses  arranged  in  an  irregular  group.  We 
wondered  if  this  could  be  the  “Inca  city”  which 
Lopez  Torres  had  reported.  Among  the  ruins  we 
picked  up  several  fragments  of  Inca  pottery.  There 
was  nothing  Incaic  about  the  buildings.  One  was 
rectangular  and  one  was  spade-shaped,  but  all  the 
rest  were  round.  The  buildings  varied  in  diameter 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet.  Each  had  but  a single 
opening.  The  walls  had  tumbled  down,  but  gave  no 
evidence  of  careful  construction.  Not  far  away,  in 
woods  which  had  not  yet  been  cleared  by  the  sav- 
ages, we  found  other  circular  walls.  They  were  still 
standing  to  a height  of  about  four  feet.  If  the  sav- 
ages have  extended  their  milpa  clearings  since  our 
visit,  the  falling  trees  have  probably  spoiled  these 
walls  by  now.  The  ancient  village  probably  be- 
longed to  a tribe  which  acknowledged  allegiance  to 
the  Incas,  but  the  architecture  of  the  buildings  gave 
no  indication  of  their  having  been  constructed  by 
the  Incas  themselves.  We  began  to  wonder  whether 
the  “Pampa  of  Ghosts”  really  had  anything  im- 
portant in  store  for  us.  Undoubtedly  this  alluvial 
fan  had  been  highly  prized  in  this  country  of  terribly 
steep  hills.  It  must  have  been  inhabited,  off  and  on, 
for  many  centuries.  Yet  this  was  not  an  “ Inca  city.” 


294 


INCA  LAND 


While  we  were  wondering  whether  the  Incas 
themselves  ever  lived  here,  there  suddenly  appeared 
the  naked  figure  of  a sturdy  young  savage,  armed 
with  a stout  bow  and  long  arrows,  and  wearing  a 
fillet  of  bamboo.  He  had  been  hunting  and  showed 
us  a bird  he  had  shot.  Soon  afterwards  there  came 
the  two  adult  savages  we  had  met  at  Saavedra’s, 
accompanied  by  a cross-eyed  friend,  all  wearing 
long  tunics.  They  offered  to  guide  us  to  other  ruins. 
It  was  very  difficult  for  us  to  follow  their  rapid  pace. 
Half  an  hour’s  scramble  through  the  jungle  brought 
us  to  a pampa  or  natural  terrace  on  the  banks  of  a 
little  tributary  of  the  Pampaconas.  They  called  it 
Eromboni.  Here  we  found  several  old  artificial  ter- 
races and  the  rough  foundations  of  a long,  rectangu- 
lar building  192  feet  by  24  feet.  It  might  have  had 
twenty-four  doors,  twelve  in  front  and  twelve  in 
back,  each  three  and  a half  feet  wide.  No  lintels 
were  in  evidence.  The  walls  were  only  a foot  high. 
There  was  very  little  building  material  in  sight.  Ap- 
parently the  structure  had  never  been  completed. 
Near  by  was  a typical  Inca  fountain  with  three 
stone  spouts,  or  conduits.  Two  hundred  yards  be- 
yond the  water-carrier’s  rendezvous,  hidden  behind 
a curtain  of  hanging  vines  and  thickets  so  dense 
we  could  not  see  more  than  a few  feet  in  any  direc- 
tion, the  savages  showed  us  the  ruins  of  a group  of 
stone  houses  whose  walls  were  still  standing  in  fine 
condition. 

One  of  the  buildings  was  rounded  at  one  end. 
Another,  standing  by  itself  at  the  south  end  of  a 
little  pampa , had  neither  doors  nor  windows.-  It  was 


INCA  RUINS  IN  THE  JUNGLES  OF  ESPIRITU  PAMPA 


THE  PAMPA  OF  GHOSTS 


295 


rectangular.  Its  four  or  five  niches  were  arranged 
with  unique  irregularity.  Furthermore,  they  were 
two  feet  deep,  an  unusual  dimension.  Probably  this 
was  a storehouse.  On  the  east  side  of  the  pampa 
was  a structure,  120  feet  long  by  21  feet  wide, 
divided  into  five  rooms  of  unequal  size.  The  walls 
were  of  rough  stones  laid  in  adobe.  Like  some  of  the 
Inca  buildings  at  Ollantaytambo,  the  lintels  of  the 
doors  were  made  of  three  or  four  narrow  uncut 
ashlars.  Some  rooms  had  niches.  On  the  north  side 
of  the  pampa  was  another  rectangular  building. 
On  the  west  side  was  the  edge  of  a stone-faced  ter- 
race. Below  it  was  a partly  enclosed  fountain  or 
bathhouse,  with  a stone  spout  and  a stone-lined 
basin.  The  shapes  of  the  houses,  their  general  ar- 
rangement, the  niches,  stone  roof-pegs  and  lintels, 
all  point  to  Inca  builders.  In  the  buildings  we  picked 
up  several  fragments  of  Inca  pottery. 

Equally  interesting  and  very  puzzling  were  half 
a dozen  crude  Spanish  roofing  tiles,  baked  red.  All 
the  pieces  and  fragments  we  could  find  would  not 
have  covered  four  square  feet.  They  were  of  widely 
different  sizes,  as  though  some  one  had  been  experi- 
menting. Perhaps  an  Inca  who  had  seen  the  new 
red  tiled  roofs  of  Cuzco  had  tried  to  reproduce  them 
here  in  the  jungle,  but  without  success. 

At  dusk  we  all  returned  to  Espiritu  Pampa.  Our 
faces,  hands,  and  clothes  had  been  torn  by  the 
jungle;  our  feet  were  weary  and  sore.  Nevertheless 
the  day’s  work  had  been  very  satisfactory  and  we 
prepared  to  enjoy  a good  night’s  rest.  Alas,  we  were 
doomed  to  disappointment.  During  the  day  some 


INCA  LAND 


296 

one  had  brought  to  the  hut  eight  tame  but  noisy 
macaws.  Furthermore,  our  savage  helpers  deter- 
mined to  make  the  night  hideous  with  cries,  tom- 
toms, and  drums,  either  to  discourage  the  visits  of 
hostile  Indians  or  jaguars,  or  for  the  purpose  of 
exorcising  the  demons  brought  by  the  white  men,  or 
else  to  cheer  up  their  families,  who  were  undoubt- 
edly hiding  in  the  jungle  near  by. 

The  next  day  the  savages  and  our  carriers  con- 
tinued to  clear  away  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
tangled  growth  near  the  best  ruins.  In  this  process, 
to  the  intense  surprise  not  only  of  ourselves,  but 
also  of  the  savages,  they  discovered,  just  below  the 
“bathhouse”  where  we  had  stood  the  day  before, 
the  well-preserved  ruins  of  two  buildings  of  superior 
construction,  well  fitted  with  stone-pegs  and  numer- 
ous niches,  very  symmetrically  arranged.  These 
houses  stood  by  themselves  on  a little  artificial 
terrace.  Fragments  of  characteristic  Inca  pottery 
were  found  on  the  floor,  including  pieces  of  a large 
aryballus . 

Nothing  gives  a better  idea  of  the  density  of  the 
jungle  than  the  fact  that  the  savages  themselves 
had  often  been  within  five  feet  of  these  fine  walls 
without  being  aware  of  their  existence. 

Encouraged  by  this  important  discovery  of  the 
most  characteristic  Inca  ruins  found  in  the  valley, 
we  continued  the  search,  but  all  that  any  one  was 
able  to  find  was  a carefully  built  stone  bridge  over  a 
brook.  Saavedra’s  son  questioned  the  savages  care- 
fully. They  said  they  knew  of  no  other  antiquities. 

Who  built  the  stone  buildings  of  Espiritu  Pampa 


THE  PAMPA  OF  GHOSTS 


297 


and  Eromboni  Pampa?  Was  this  the  "Vilcabamba 
Viejo”  of  Father  Calancha,  that  '‘University  of 
Idolatry  where  lived  the  teachers  who  were  wizards 
and  masters  of  abomination,”  the  place  to  which 
Friar  Marcos  and  Friar  Diego  went  with  so  much 
suffering?  Was  there  formerly  on  this  trail  a place 
called  Ungacacha  where  the  monks  had  to  wade, 
and  amused  Titu  Cusi  by  the  way  they  handled 
their  monastic  robes  in  the  water?  They  called  it  a 
"three  days’  journey  over  rough  country.”  Another 
reference  in  Father  Calancha  speaks  of  Puquiura  as 
being  "two  long  days’  journey  from  Vilcabamba.” 
It  took  us  five  days  to  go  from  Espiritu  Pampa  to 
Pucyura,  although  Indians,  unencumbered  by  bur- 
dens, and  spurred  on  by  necessity,  might  do  it  in 
three.  It  is  possible  to  fit  some  other  details  of  the 
story  into  this  locality,  although  there  is  no  place 
on  the  road  called  Ungacacha.  Nevertheless  it  does 
not  seem  to  me  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
priests  and  Virgins  of  the  Sun  (the  personnel  of  the 
"University  of  Idolatry”)  who  fled  from  cold  Cuzco 
with  Man co  and  were  established  by  him  somewhere 
in  the  fastnesses  of  Uilcapampa  would  have  cared 
to  live  in  the  hot  valley  of  Espiritu  Pampa.  The 
difference  in  climate  is  as  great  as  that  between 
Scotland  and  Egypt,  or  New  York  and  Havana. 
They  would  not  have  found  in  Espiritu  Pampa  the 
food  which  they  liked.  Furthermore,  they  could 
have  found  the  seclusion  and  safety  which  they 
craved  just  as  well  in  several  other  parts  of  the 
province,  particularly  at  Machu  Picchu,  together 
with  a cool,  bracing  climate  and  food-stuffs  more 


298 


INCA  LAND 


nearly  resembling  those  to  which  they  were  ac- 
customed. Finally  Calancha  says  “Vilcabamba  the 
Old”  was  “the  largest  city”  in  the  province,  a term 
far  more  applicable  to  Machu  Picchu  or  even  to 
Choqquequirau  than  to  Espiritu  Pampa. 

On  the  other  hand  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
that  Espiritu  Pampa  in  the  montana  does  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  place  called  Vilcabamba  by 
the  companions  of  Captain  Garcia.  They  speak  of 
it  as  the  town  and  valley  to  which  Tupac  Amaru, 
the  last  Inca,  escaped  after  his  forces  lost  the 
“young  fortress”  of  Uiticos.  Ocampo,  doubtless 
wishing  to  emphasize  the  difference  between  it  and 
his  own  metropolis,  the  Spanish  town  of  Vilca- 
bamba, calls  the  refuge  of  Tupac  “Vilcabamba  the 
old.”  Ocampo’s  new  “Vilcabamba”  was  not  in 
existence  when  Friar  Marcos  and  Friar  Diego  lived 
in  this  province.  If  Calancha  wrote  his  chronicles 
from  their  notes,  the  term  “old ” would  not  apply  to 
Espiritu  Pampa,  but  to  an  older  Vilcabamba  than 
either  of  the  places  known  to  Ocampo. 

The  ruins  are  of  late  Inca  pattern,  not  of  a kind 
which  would  have  required  a long  period  to  build. 
The  unfinished  building  may  have  been  under  con- 
struction during  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Titu 
Cusi.  It  was  Titu  Cusi’s  desire  that  Rodriguez  de 
Figueroa  should  meet  him  at  Pampaconas.  The  Inca 
evidently  came  from  a Vilcabamba  down  in  the 
montana , and,  as  has  been  said,  brought  Rodriguez 
a present  of  a macaw  and  two  hampers  of  peanuts, 
articles  of  trade  still  common  at  Conservidayoc. 
There  appears  to  me  every  reason  to  believe  that 


THE  PAMPA  OF  GHOSTS 


299 


the  ruins  of  Espiritu  Pampa  are  those  of  one  of  the 
favorite  residences  of  this  Inca  — the  very  Vilca- 
bamba,  in  fact,  where  he  spent  his  boyhood  and 
from  which  he  journeyed  to  meet  Rodriguez  in  1565. 1 

In  1572,  when  Captain  Garcia  took  up  the  pursuit 
of  Tupac  Amaru  after  the  victory  of  Vilcabamba, 
the  Inca  fled  “inland  toward  the  valley  of  Sima- 
ponte  ...  to  the  country  of  the  Manaries  Indians, 
a warlike  tribe  and  his  friends,  where  balsas  and 
canoes  were  posted  to  save  him  and  enable  him  to 
escape.”  There  is  now  no  valley  in  this  vicinity 
called  Simaponte,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to 
discover.  The  Manaries  Indians  are  said  to  have 
lived  on  the  banks  of  the  lower  Urubamba.  In  or- 
der to  reach  their  country  Tupac  Amaru  probably 
went  down  the  Pampaconas  from  Espiritu  Pampa. 
From  the  “ Pampa  of  Ghosts”  to  canoe  navigation 
would  have  been  but  a short  journey.  Evidently 
his  friends  who  helped  him  to  escape  were  canoe- 
men.  Captain  Garcia  gives  an  account  of  the  pur- 
suit of  Tupac  Amaru  in  which  he  says  that,  not  de- 
terred by  the  dangers  of  the  jungle  or  the  river,  he 
constructed  five  rafts  on  which  he  put  some  of  his 
soldiers  and,  accompanying  them  himself,  went 
down  the  rapids,  escaping  death  many  times  by 
swimming,  until  he  arrived  at  a place  called  Momori, 
only  to  find  that  the  Inca,  learning  of  his  approach, 
had  gone  farther  into  the  woods.  Nothing  daunted, 
Garcia  followed  him,  although  he  and  his  men  now 
had  to  go  on  foot  and  barefooted,  with  hardly  any- 

1 Titu  Cusi  was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Manco.  His  mother  was  not 
of  royal  blood  and  may  have  been  a native  of  the  warm  valleys. 


3oo 


INCA  LAND 


thing  to  eat,  most  of  their  provisions  having  been 
lost  in  the  river,  until  they  finally  caught  Tupac  and 
his  friends;  a tragic  ending  to  a terrible  chase,  hard 
on  the  white  man  and  fatal  for  the  Incas. 

It  was  with  great  regret  that  I was  now  unable  to 
follow  the  Pampaconas  River  to  its  junction  with 
the  Urubamba.  It  seemed  possible  that  the  Pam- 
paconas might  be  known  as  the  Sirialo,  or  the  Cori- 
beni,  both  of  which  were  believed  by  Dr.  Bowman’s 
canoe-men  to  rise  in  the  mountains  of  Vilcabamba. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  the  summer  of  1915  that 
we  were  able  definitely  to  learn  that  the  Pampa- 
conas was  really  a branch  of  the  Cosireni.  It  seems 
likely  that  the  Cosireni  was  once  called  the  “Sima- 
ponte.”  Whether  the  Comberciato  is  the  “ Momori  ” 
is  hard  to  say. 

To  be  the  next  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  Tupac 
Amaru  and  Captain  Garcia  was  the  privilege  of 
Messrs.  Heller,  Ford,  and  Maynard.  They  found 
that  the  unpleasant  features  had  not  been  exag- 
gerated. They  were  tormented  by  insects  and  great 
quantities  of  ants  — a small  red  ant  found  on  tree 
trunks,  and  a large  black  one,  about  an  inch  in 
length,  frequently  seen  among  the  leaves  on  the 
ground.  The  bite  of  the  red  ant  caused  a stinging 
and  burning  for  about  fifteen  minutes.  One  of  their 
carriers  who  was  bitten  in  the  foot  by  a black  ant 
suffered  intense  pain  for  a number  of  hours.  Not 
only  his  foot,  but  also  his  leg  and  hip  were  affected. 
The  savages  were  both  fishermen  and  hunters; 
the  fish  being  taken  with  nets,  the  game  killed  with 
bows  and  arrows.  Peccaries  were  shot  from  a blind 


THE  PAMPA  OF  GHOSTS 


301 


made  of  palm  leaves  a few  feet  from  a runway. 
Fishing  brought  rather  meager  results.  Three  In- 
dians fished  all  night  and  caught  only  one  fish,  a 
perch  weighing  about  four  pounds. 

The  temperature  was  so  high  that  candles  could 
easily  be  tied  in  knots.  Excessive  humidity  caused 
all  leather  articles  to  become  blue  with  mould. 
Clouds  of  flies  and  mosquitoes  increased  the  likeli- 
hood of  spreading  communicable  jungle  fevers. 

The  river  Comberciato  was  reached  by  Mr. 
Heller  at  a point  not  more  than  a league  from  its 
junction  with  the  Urubamba.  The  lower  course  of 
the  Comberciato  is  not  considered  dangerous  to 
canoe  navigation,  but  the  valley  is  much  narrower 
than  the  Cosireni.  The  width  of  the  river  is  about 
150  feet  and  its  volume  is  twice  that  of  the  Cosireni. 
The  climate  is  very  trying.  The  nights  are  hot. 
Insect  pests  are  numerous.  Mr.  Heller  found  that 
“the  forest  was  filled  with  annoying,  though  sting- 
less, bees  which  persisted  in  attempting  to  roost  on 
the  countenance  of  any  human  being  available/* 
On  the  banks  of  the  Comberciato  he  found  several 
families  of  savages.  All  the  men  were  keen  hunters 
and  fishermen.  Their  weapons  consisted  of  powerful 
bows  made  from  the  wood  of  a small  palm  and  long 
arrows  made  of  reeds  and  finished  with  feathers 
arranged  in  a spiral. 

Monkeys  were  abundant.  Specimens  of  six  dis- 
tinct genera  were  found,  including  the  large  red 
howler,  inert  and  easily  located  by  its  deep,  roaring 
bellow  which  can  be  heard  for  a distance  of  several 
miles;  the  giant  black  spider  monkey,  very  alert, 


302 


INCA  LAND 


and,  when  frightened,  fairly  flying  through  the 
branches  at  astonishing  speed;  and  a woolly  mon- 
key, black  in  color,  and  very  intelligent  in  expres- 
sion, frequently  tamed  by  the  savages,  who  “enjoy 
having  them  as  pets  but  are  not  averse  to  eating 
them  when  food  is  scarce.’ 1 “ The  flesh  of  monkeys 
is  greatly  appreciated  by  these  Indians,  who  pre- 
served what  they  did  not  require  for  immediate 
needs  by  drying  it  over  the  smoke  of  a wood  fire.” 

On  the  Cosireni  Mr.  Maynard  noticed  that  one  of 
his  Indian  guides  carried  a package,  wrapped  in 
leaves,  which  on  being  opened  proved  to  contain 
forty  or  fifty  large  hairless  grubs  or  caterpillars. 
The  man  finally  bit  their  heads  off  and  threw  the 
bodies  into  a small  bag,  saying  that  the  grubs  were 
considered  a great  delicacy  by  the  savages. 

The  Indians  we  met  at  Espiritu  Pampa  closely 
resembled  those  seen  in  the  lower  valley.  All  our 
savages  were  bareheaded  and  barefooted.  They  live 
so  much  in  the  shelter  of  the  jungle  that  hats  are 
not  necessary.  Sandals  or  shoes  would  only  make 
it  harder  to  use  the  slippery  little  trails.  They  had 
seen  no  strangers  penetrate  this  valley  for  about 
ten  years,  and  at  first  kept  their  wives  and  children 
well  secluded.  Later,  when  Messrs.  Hendriksen  and 
Tucker  were  sent  here  to  determine  the  astronomi- 
cal position  of  Espiritu  Pampa,  the  savages  per- 
mitted Mr.  Tucker  to  take  photographs  of  their 
families.  Perhaps  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  knew 
just  what  he  was  doing.  At  all  events  they  did  not 
run  away  and  hide. 

All  the  men  and  older  boys  wore  white  fillets  of 


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THE  PAMPA  OF  GHOSTS 


303 


bamboo.  The  married  men  had  smeared  paint  on 
their  faces,  and  one  of  them  was  wearing  the  char- 
acteristic lip  ornament  of  the  Campas.  Some  of  the 
children  wore  no  clothing  at  all.  Two  of  the  wives 
wore  long  tunics  like  the  men.  One  of  them  had  a 
truly  savage  face,  daubed  with  paint.  She  wore  no 
fillet,  had  the  best  tunic,  and  wore  a handsome  neck- 
lace made  of  seeds  and  the  skins  of  small  birds  of 
brilliant  plumage,  a work  of  art  which  must  have 
cost  infinite  pains  and  the  loss  of  not  a few  arrows. 
All  the  women  carried  babies  in  little  hammocks 
slung  over  the  shoulder.  One  little  girl,  not  more 
than  six  years  old,  was  carrying  on  her  back  a child 
of  two,  in  a hammock  supported  from  her  head  by 
a tump-line.  It  will  be  remembered  that  forest  In- 
dians nearly  always  use  tump-lines  so  as  to  allow 
their  hands  free  play.  One  of  the  wives  was  fairer 
than  the  others  and  looked  as  though  she  might 
have  had  a Spanish  ancestor.  The  most  savage- 
looking of  the  women  was  very  scantily  clad,  wore 
a necklace  of  seeds,  a white  lip  ornament,  and  a few 
rags  tied  around  her  waist.  All  her  children  were 
naked.  The  children  of  the  woman  with  the  hand- 
some necklace  were  clothed  in  pieces  of  old  tunics, 
and  one  of  them,  evidently  her  mother’s  favorite, 
was  decorated  with  bird  skins  and  a necklace  made 
from  the  teeth  of  monkeys. 

Such  were  the  people  among  whom  Tupac  Amaru 
took  refuge  when  he  fled  from  Vilcabamba.  Whether 
he  partook  of  such  a delicacy  as  monkey  meat, 
which  all  Amazonian  Indians  relish,  but  which  is 
not  eaten  by  the  highlanders,  may  be  doubted. 


304 


INCA  LAND 


Garcilasso  speaks  of  Tupac  Amaru’s  preferring  to 
entrust  himself  to  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards 
“rather  than  to  perish  of  famine.”  His  Indian 
allies  lived  perfectly  well  in  a region  where  monkeys 
abound.  It  is  doubtful  whether  they  would  ever 
have  permitted  Captain  Garcia  to  capture  the  Inca 
had  they  been  able  to  furnish  Tupac  with  such  food 
as  he  was  accustomed  to. 

At  all  events  our  investigations  seem  to  point  to 
the  probability  of  this  valley  having  been  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  domain  of  the  last  Incas.  It 
would  have  been  pleasant  to  prolong  our  studies, 
but  the  carriers  were  anxious  to  return  to  Pampa- 
conas.  Although  they  did  not  have  to  eat  monkey 
meat,  they  were  afraid  of  the  savages  and  nervous 
as  to  what  use  the  latter  might  some  day  make  of 
the  powerful  bows  and  long  arrows. 

At  Conservidayoc  Saavedra  kindly  took  the  trou- 
ble to  make  some  sugar  for  us.  He  poured  the 
syrup  in  oblong  moulds  cut  in  a row  along  the  side 
of  a big  log  of  hard  wood.  In  some  of  the  moulds 
his  son  placed  handfuls  of  nicely  roasted  peanuts. 
The  result  was  a confection  or  “emergency  ration” 
which  we  greatly  enjoyed  on  our  return  journey. 

At  San  Fernando  we  met  the  pack  mules.  The 
next  day,  in  the  midst  of  continuing  torrential 
tropical  downpours,  we  climbed  out  of  the  hot  val- 
ley to  the  cold  heights  of  Pampaconas.  We  were 
soaked  with  perspiration  and  drenched  with  rain. 
Snow  had  been  falling  above  the  village;  our  teeth 
chattered  like  castanets.  Professor  Foote  immedi- 
ately commandeered  Mrs.  Guzman’s  fire  and  filled 


THE  PAM  PA  OF  GHOSTS 


305 


our  tea  kettle.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  a more 
wretched,  cold,  wet,  and  bedraggled  party  ever  ar- 
rived at  Guzman’s  hut;  certainly  nothing  ever 
tasted  better  than  that  steaming  hot  sweet  tea. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


THE  STORY  OF  TAMPU-TOCCO,  A LOST  CITY  OF  THE 
FIRST  INCAS 

IT  will  be  remembered  that  while  on  the  search  for 
the  capital  of  the  last  Incas  we  had  found  several 
groups  of  ruins  which  we  could  not  fit  entirely  into 
the  story  of  Manco  and  his  sons.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  was  Machu  Picchu.  Many  of  its 
buildings  are  far  older  than  the  ruins  of  Rosaspata 
and  Espiritu  Pampa.  To  understand  just  what  we 
may  have  found  at  Machu  Picchu  it  is  now  neces- 
sary to  tell  the  story  of  a celebrated  city,  whose 
name,  Tampu-tocco,  was  not  used  even  at  the  time 
of  the  Spanish  Conquest  as  the  cognomen  of  any  of 
the  Inca  towns  then  in  existence.  I must  draw  the 
reader’s  attention  far  away  from  the  period  when 
Pizarro  and  Manco,  Toledo  and  Tupac  Amaru  were 
the  protagonists,  back  to  events  which  occurred 
nearly  seven  hundred  years  before  their  day.  The 
last  Incas  ruled  in  Uiticos  between  1536  and  1572. 
The  last  Amautas  flourished  about  800  a.d. 

The  Amautas  had  been  ruling  the  Peruvian  high- 
lands for  about  sixty  generations,  when,  as  has  been 
told  in  Chapter  VI,  invaders  came  from  the  south 
and  east.  The  Amautas  had  built  up  a wonderful 
civilization.  Many  of  the  agricultural  and  engineer- 
ing feats  which  we  ordinarily  assign  to  the  Incas 
were  really  achievements  of  the  Amautas.  The  last 
of  the  Amautas  was  Pachacuti  VI,  who  was  killed 


PUMA  URCO,  NEAR  PACCARITAMPU 


THE  STORY  OF  TAMPU-TOCCO  307 

by  an  arrow  on  the  battle-field  of  La  Raya.  The 
historian  Montesinos,  whose  work  on  the  antiqui- 
ties of  Peru  has  recently  been  translated  for  the 
Hakluyt  Society  by  Mr.  P.  A.  Means,  of  Harvard 
University,  tells  us  that  the  followers  of  Pachacuti 
VI  fled  with  his  body  to  “Tampu-tocco.”  This, 
says  the  historian,  was  “a  healthy  place”  where 
there  was  a cave  in  which  they  hid  the  Amauta’s 
body.  Cuzco,  the  finest  and  most  important  of  all 
their  cities,  was  sacked.  General  anarchy  prevailed 
throughout  the  ancient  empire.  The  good  old  days 
of  peace  and  plenty  disappeared  before  the  invader. 
The  glory  of  the  old  empire  was  destroyed,  not  to 
return  for  several  centuries.  In  these  dark  ages, 
resembling  those  of  European  medieval  times  which 
followed  the  Germanic  migrations  and  the  fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  Peru  was  split  up  into  a large 
number  of  small  independent  units.  Each  district 
chose  its  own  ruler  and  carried  on  depredations 
against  its  neighbors.  The  effects  of  this  may  still 
be  seen  in  the  ruins  of  small  fortresses  found  guard- 
ing the  way  into  isolated  Andean  valleys. 

Montesinos  says  that  those  who  were  most  loyal 
to  the  Amautas  were  few  in  number  and  not  strong 
enough  to  oppose  their  enemies  successfully.  Some 
of  them,  probably  the  principal  priests,  wise  men, 
and  chiefs  of  the  ancient  regime,  built  a new  city  at 
“Tampu-tocco.”  Here  they  kept  alive  the  memory 
of  the  Amautas  and  lived  in  such  a relatively  civi- 
lized manner  as  to  draw  to  them,  little  by  little, 
those  who  wished  to  be  safe  from  the  prevailing 
chaos  and  disorder  and  the  tyranny  of  the  inde- 


INCA  LAND 


308 

pendent  chiefs  or  “ robber  barons.”  In  their  new 
capital,  they  elected  a king,  Titi  Truaman  Quicho. 

The  survivors  of  the  old  regime  enjoyed  living  at 
Tampu-tocco,  because  there  never  have  been  any 
earthquakes,  plagues,  or  tremblings  there.  Further- 
more, if  fortune  should  turn  against  their  new  young 
king,  Titi  Truaman,  and  he  should  be  killed,  they 
could  bury  him  in  a very  sacred  place,  namely,  the 
cave  where  they  hid  the  body  of  Pachacuti  VI. 

Fortune  was  kind  to  the  founders  of  the  new 
kingdom.  They  had  chosen  an  excellent  place  of 
refuge  where  they  were  not  disturbed.  To  their 
ruler,  the  king  of  Tampu-tocco,  and  to  his  successors 
nothing  worth  recording  happened  for  centuries. 
During  this  period  several  of  the  kings  wished  to 
establish  themselves  in  ancient  Cuzco,  where  the 
great  Amautas  had  reigned,  but  for  one  reason  or 
another  were  obliged  to  forego  their  ambitions. 

One  of  the  most  enlightened  rulers  of  Tampu- 
tocco  was  a king  called  Tupac  Cauri,  or  Pachacuti 
VII.  In  his  day  people  began  to  write  on  the 
leaves  of  trees.  He  sent  messengers  to  the  various 
parts  of  the  highlands,  asking  the  tribes  to  stop 
worshiping  idols  and  animals,  to  cease  practicing 
evil  customs  which  had  grown  up  since  the  fall 
of  the  Amautas,  and  to  return  to  the  ways  of  their 
ancestors.  He  met  with  little  encouragement.  On 
the  contrary,  his  ambassadors  were  killed  and  little 
or  no  change  took  place.  Discouraged  by  the  failure 
of  his  attempts  at  reformation  and  desirous  of 
learning  its  cause,  Tupac  Cauri  was  told  by  his 
soothsayers  that  the  matter  which  most  displeased 


THE  STORY  OF  TAMPU-TOCCO  309 

the  gods  was  the  invention  of  writing.  Thereupon 
he  forbade  anybody  to  practice  writing,  under 
penalty  of  death.  This  mandate  was  observed  with 
such  strictness  that  the  ancient  folk  never  again 
used  letters.  Instead,  they  used  quipus , strings  and 
knots.  It  was  supposed  that  the  gods  were  ap- 
peased, and  every  one  breathed  easier.  No  one  re- 
alized how  near  the  Peruvians  as  a race  had  come 
to  taking  a most  momentous  step. 

This  curious  and  interesting  tradition  relates  to 
an  event  supposed  to  have  occurred  many  centuries 
before  the  Spanish  Conquest.  We  have  no  ocular 
evidence  to  support  it.  The  skeptic  may  brush  it 
aside  as  a story  intended  to  appeal  to  the  vanity  of 
persons  with  Inca  blood  in  their  veins;  yet  it  is  not 
told  by  the  half-caste  Garcilasso,  who  wanted  Euro- 
peans to  admire  his  maternal  ancestors  and  wrote 
his  book  accordingly,  but  is  in  the  pages  of  that 
careful  investigator  Montesinos,  a pure-blooded 
Spaniard.  As  a matter  of  fact,  to  students  of  Sum- 
ner’s “Folkways,”  the  story  rings  true.  Some 
young  fellow,  brighter  than  the  rest,  developed  a 
system  of  ideographs  which  he  scratched  on  broad, 
smooth  leaves.  It  worked.  People  were  beginning 
to  adopt  it.  The  conservative  priests  of  Tampu- 
tocco  did  not  like  it.  There  was  danger  lest  some  of 
the  precious  secrets,  heretofore  handed  down  orally 
to  the  neophytes,  might  become  public  property. 
Nevertheless,  the  invention  was  so  useful  that  it 
began  to  spread.  There  followed  some  extremely 
unlucky  event  — the  ambassadors  were  killed,  the 
king’s  plans  miscarried.  What  more  natural  than 


3io 


INCA  LAND 


that  the  newly  discovered  ideographs  should  be 
blamed  for  it?  Asa  result,  the  king  of  Tampu-tocco, 
instigated  thereto  by  the  priests,  determined  to 
abolish  this  new  thing.  Its  usefulness  had  not  yet 
been  firmly  established.  In  fact  it  was  inconvenient ; 
the  leaves  withered,  dried,  and  cracked,  or  blew 
away,  and  the  writings  were  lost.  Had  the  new  in- 
vention been  permitted  to  exist  a little  longer,  some 
one  would  have  commenced  to  scratch  ideographs 
on  rocks.  Then  it  would  have  persisted.  The  rulers 
and  priests,  however,  found  that  the  important 
records  of  tribute  and  taxes  could  be  kept  perfectly 
well  by  means  of  the  quipus . And  the  “job”  of 
those  whose  duty  it  was  to  remember  what  each 
string  stood  for  was  assured.  After  all  there  is  noth- 
ing unusual  about  Montesinos*  story.  One  has  only 
to  look  at  the  history  of  Spain  itself  to  realize  that 
royal  bigotry  and  priestly  intolerance  have  often 
crushed  new  ideas  and  kept  great  nations  from 
making  important  advances. 

Montesinos  says  further  that  Tupac  Cauri  estab- 
lished in  Tampu-tocco  a kind  of  university  where 
boys  were  taught  the  use  of  quipus , the  method  of 
counting  and  the  significance  of  the  different  colored 
strings,  while  their  fathers  and  older  brothers  were 
trained  in  military  exercises  — in  other  words, 
practiced  with  the  sling,  the  bolas  and  the  war-club; 
perhaps  also  with  bows  and  arrows.  Around  the 
name  of  Tupac  Cauri,  or  Pachacuti  VII,  as  he  wished 
to  be  called,  is  gathered  the  story  of  various  intel- 
lectual movements  which  took  place  in  Tampu-tocco. 

Finally,  there  came  a time  when  the  skill  and 


THE  STORY  OF  TAMPU-TOCCO  31 1 

military  efficiency  of  the  little  kingdom  rose  to  a 
high  plane.  The  ruler  and  his  councilors,  bearing  in 
mind  the  tradition  of  their  ancestors  who  centuries 
before  had  dwelt  in  Cuzco,  again  determined  to 
make  the  attempt  to  reestablish  themselves  there. 
An  earthquake,  which  ruined  many  buildings  in 
Cuzco,  caused  rivers  to  change  their  courses,  de- 
stroyed towns,  and  was  followed  by  the  outbreak  of  a 
disastrous  epidemic.  The  chiefs  were  obliged  to  give 
up  their  plans,  although  in  healthy  Tampu-tocco 
there  was  no  pestilence.  Their  kingdom  became  more 
and  more  crowded.  Every  available  square  yard  of 
arable  land  was  terraced  and  cultivated.  The  men 
were  intelligent,  well  organized,  and  accustomed  to 
discipline,  but  they  could  not  raise  enough  food  for 
their  families;  so,  about  1300  A.D.,  they  were  forced 
to  secure  arable  land  by  conquest,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  energetic  ruler  of  the  day.  His  name  was 
Manco  Ccapac,  generally  called  the  first  Inca,  the 
ruler  for  whom  the  Manco  of  1536  was  named. 

There  are  many  stories  of  the  rise  of  the  first  Inca. 
When  he  had  grown  to  man’s  estate,  he  assembled 
his  people  to  see  how  he  could  secure  new  lands  for 
them.  After  consultation  with  his  brothers,  he  de- 
termined to  set  out  with  them  “toward  the  hill  over 
which  the  sun  rose,”  as  we  are  informed  by  Pacha- 
cuti  Yamqui  Salcamayhua,  an  Indian  who  was  a 
descendant  of  a long  line  of  Incas,  whose  great- 
grandparents  lived  in  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Con- 
quest, and  who  wrote  an  account  of  the  antiquities 
of  Peru  in  1620.  He  gives  the  history  of  the  Incas  as 
it  was  handed  down  to  the  descendants  of  the  former 


312 


INCA  LAND 


rulers  of  Peru.  In  it  we  read  that  Manco  Ccapac 
and  his  brothers  finally  succeeded  in  reaching  Cuzco 
and  settled  there.  With  the  return  of  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Amautas  to  Cuzco  there  ended  the  glory 
of  Tampu-tocco.  Manco  married  his  own  sister  in 
order  that  he  might  not  lose  caste  and  that  no  other 
family  be  elevated  by  this  marriage  to  be  on  an 
equality  with  his.  He  made  good  laws,  conquered 
many  provinces,  and  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
the  Inca  dynasty.  The  highlanders  came  under  his 
sway  and  brought  him  rich  presents.  The  Inca,  as 
Manco  Ccapac  now  came  to  be  known,  was  recog- 
nized as  the  most  powerful  chief,  the  most  valiant 
fighter,  and  the  most  lucky  warrior  in  the  Andes. 
His  captains  and  soldiers  were  brave,  well  disciplined, 
and  well  armed.  All  his  affairs  prospered  greatly. 
11  Afterward  he  ordered  works  to  he  executed  at  the  place 
of  his  birth,  consisting  of  a masonry  wall  with  three 
windows , which  were  emblems  of  the  house  of  his 
fathers  whence  he  descended . The  first  window  was 
called  Tampu-tocco  ” I quote  from  Sir  Clements 
Markham’s  translation. 

The  Spaniards  who  asked  about  Tampu-tocco 
were  told  that  it  was  at  or  near  Paccaritampu,  a 
small  town  eight  or  ten  miles  south  of  Cuzco.  I 
learned  that  ruins  are  very  scarce  in  its  vicinity. 
There  are  none  in  the  town.  The  most  important 
are  the  ruins  of  Maucallacta,  an  Inca  village,  a few 
miles  away.  Near  it  I found  a rocky  hill  consisting 
of  several  crags  and  large  rocks,  the  surface  of  one  of 
which  is  carved  into  platforms  and  two  sleeping 
pumas.  It  is  called  Puma  Urco.  Beneath  the  rocks 


THE  BEST  INCA  WALL  AT  MAUCA-  THE  CAVES  OF  PUMA  URCO,  NEAR 

LLACTA,  NEAR  PACCARITAMPU  PACCAR1TAMPU 


THE  STORY  OF  TAMPU-TOCCO  313 

are  some  caves.  I was  told  they  had  recently  been 
used  by  political  refugees.  There  is  enough  about 
the  caves  and  the  characteristics  of  the  ruins  near 
Paccaritampu  to  lend  color  to  the  story  told  to  the 
early  Spaniards.  Nevertheless,  it  would  seem  as  if 
Tampu-tocco  must  have  been  a place  more  remote 
from  Cuzco  and  better  defended  by  Nature  from 
any  attacks  on  that  side.  How  else  would  it  have 
been  possible  for  the  disorganized  remnant  of  Pacha- 
cuti  VPs  army  to  have  taken  refuge  there  and  set  up 
an  independent  kingdom  in  the  face  of  the  warlike 
invaders  from  the  south?  A few  men  might  have  hid 
in  the  caves  of  Puma  Urco,  but  Paccaritampu  is 
not  a natural  citadel. 

The  surrounding  region  is  not  difficult  of  access. 
There  are  no  precipices  between  here  and  the  Cuzco 
Basin.  There  are  no  natural  defenses  against  such 
an  invading  force  as  captured  the  capital  of  the 
Amautas.  Furthermore,  tampu  means  “a  place  of 
temporary  abode,”  or  “a  tavern,”  or  “an  improved 
piece  of  ground”  or  “farm  far  from  a town”;  tocco 
means  “window.”  There  is  an  old  tavern  at  Mau- 
callacta  near  Paccaritampu,  but  there  are  no  win- 
dows in  the  building  to  justify  the  name  of  “window 
tavern”  or  “place  of  temporary  abode”  (or  “farm 
far  from  a town”)  “noted  for  its  windows.”  There 
is  nothing  of  a “masonry  wall  with  three  win- 
dows” corresponding  to  Salcamayhua’s  description 
of  Manco  Ccapac’s  memorial  at  his  birthplace.  The 
word  “Tampu-tocco”  does  not  occur  on  any  map 
I have  been  able  to  consult,  nor  is  it  in  the  exhaust- 
ive gazetteer  of  Peru  compiled  by  Paz  Soldan. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

MACHU  PICCHU 

IT  was  in  July,  1911,  that  we  first  entered  that 
marvelous  canyon  of  the  Urubamba,  where  the 
river  escapes  from  the  cold  regions  near  Cuzco 
by  tearing  its  way  through  gigantic  mountains  of 
granite.  From  Torontoy  to  Colpani  the  road  runs 
through  a land  of  matchless  charm.  It  has  the  majes- 
tic grandeur  of  the  Canadian  Rockies,  as  well  as  the 
startling  beauty  of  the  Nuuanu  Pali  near  Honolulu, 
and  the  enchanting  vistas  of  the  Koolau  Ditch  Trail 
on  Maui.  In  the  variety  of  its  charms  and  the  power 
of  its  spell,  I know  of  no  place  in  the  world  which  can 
compare  with  it.  Not  only  has  it  great  snow  peaks 
looming  above  the  clouds  more  than  two  miles  over- 
head; gigantic  precipices  of  many-colored  granite 
rising  sheer  for  thousands  of  feet  above  the  foam- 
ing, glistening,  roaring  rapids;  it  has  also,  in  strik- 
ing contrast,  orchids  and  tree  ferns,  the  delectable 
beauty  of  luxurious  vegetation,  and  the  mysterious 
witchery  of  the  jungle.  One  is  drawn  irresistibly 
onward  by  ever-recurring  surprises  through  a deep, 
winding  gorge,  turning  and  twisting  past  overhang- 
ing cliffs  of  incredible  height.  Above  all,  there  is  the 
fascination  of  finding  here  and  there  under  the  sway- 
ing vines,  or  perched  on  top  of  a beetling  crag,  the 
rugged  masonry  of  a bygone  race;  and  of  trying  to 
understand  the  bewildering  romance  of  the  ancient 


MACHU  PICCHU 


3i5 


builders  who  ages  ago  sought  refuge  in  a region 
which  appears  to  have  been  expressly  designed  by 
Nature  as  a sanctuary  for  the  oppressed,  a place 
where  they  might  fearlessly  and  patiently  give  ex- 
pression to  their  passion  for  walls  of  enduring 
beauty.  Space  forbids  any  attempt  to  describe  in 
detail  the  constantly  changing  panorama,  the  rank 
tropical  foliage,  the  countless  terraces,  the  towering 
cliffs,  the  glaciers  peeping  out  between  the  clouds. 

We  had  camped  at  a place  near  the  river,  called 
Mandor  Pampa.  Melchor  Arteaga,  proprietor  of  the 
neighboring  farm,  had  told  us  of  ruins  at  Machu 
Picchu,  as  was  related  in  Chapter  X. 

The  morning  of  July  24th  dawned  in  a cold 
drizzle.  Arteaga  shivered  and  seemed  inclined  to 
stay  in  his  hut.  I offered  to  pay  him  well  if  he  would 
show  me  the  ruins.  He  demurred  and  said  it  was 
too  hard  a climb  for  such  a wet  day.  When  he  found 
that  we  were  willing  to  pay  him  a sol , three  or  four 
times  the  ordinary  daily  wage  in  this  vicinity,  he 
finally  agreed  to  guide  us  to  the  ruins.  No  one  sup- 
posed that  they  would  be  particularly  interesting. 
Accompanied  by  Sergeant  Carrasco  I left  camp  at 
ten  o’clock  and  went  some  distance  upstream.  On 
the  road  we  passed  a venomous  snake  which  re- 
cently had  been  killed.  This  region  has  an  unpleas- 
ant notoriety  for  being  the  favorite  haunt  of 
“vipers.”  The  lance-headed  or  yellow  viper,  com- 
monly known  as  the  fer-de-lance,  a very  venomous 
serpent  capable  of  making  considerable  springs 
when  in  pursuit  of  its  prey,  is  common  hereabouts. 
Later  two  of  our  mules  died  from  snake-bite. 


3i6 


INCA  LAND 


After  a walk  of  three  quarters  of  an  hour  the 
guide  left  the  main  road  and  plunged  down  through 
the  jungle  to  the  bank  of  the  river.  Here  there  was 
a primitive  “bridge”  which  crossed  the  roaring 
rapids  at  its  narrowest  part,  where  the  stream  was 
forced  to  flow  between  two  great  boulders.  The 
bridge  was  made  of  half  a dozen  very  slender  logs, 
some  of  which  were  not  long  enough  to  span  the 
distance  between  the  boulders.  They  had  been 
spliced  and  lashed  together  with  vines.  Arteaga 
and  Carrasco  took  off  their  shoes  and  crept  gingerly 
across,  using  their  somewhat  prehensile  toes  to 
keep  from  slipping.  It  was  obvious  that  no  one 
could  have  lived  for  an  instant  in  the  rapids,  but 
would  immediately  have  been  dashed  to  pieces 
against  granite  boulders.  I am  frank  to  confess 
that  I got  down  on  hands  and  knees  and  crawled 
across,  six  inches  at  a time.  Even  after  we  reached 
the  other  side  I could  not  help  wondering  what 
would  happen  to  the  “bridge”  if  a particularly 
heavy  shower  should  fall  in  the  valley  above.  A 
light  rain  had  fallen  during  the  night.  The  river  had 
risen  so  that  the  bridge  was  already  threatened  by 
the  foaming  rapids.  It  would  not  take  much  more 
rain  to  wash  away  the  bridge  entirely.  If  this  should 
happen  during  the  day  it  might  be  very  awkward. 
As  a matter  of  fact,  it  did  happen  a few  days  later 
and  the  next  explorers  to  attempt  to  cross  the  river 
at  this  point  found  only  one  slender  log  remaining. 

Leaving  the  stream,  we  struggled  up  the  bank 
through  a dense  jungle,  and  in  a few  minutes  reached 
the  bottom  of  a precipitous  slope.  For  an  hour  and 


MACHU  PICCHU 


3i7 


twenty  minutes  we  had  a hard  climb.  A good  part 
of  the  distance  we  went  on  all  fours,  sometimes 
hanging  on  by  the  tips  of  our  fingers.  Here  and 
there,  a primitive  ladder  made  from  the  roughly 
hewn  trunk  of  a small  tree  was  placed  in  such  a way 
as  to  help  one  over  what  might  otherwise  have 
proved  to  be  an  impassable  cliff.  In  another  place 
the  slope  was  covered  with  slippery  grass  where 
it  was  hard  to  find  either  handholds  or  footholds. 
The  guide  said  that  there  were  lots  of  snakes  here. 
The  humidity  was  great,  the  heat  was  excessive, 
and  we  were  not  in  training. 

Shortly  after  noon  we  reached  a little  grass- 
covered  hut  where  several  good-natured  Indians, 
pleasantly  surprised  at  our  unexpected  arrival,  wel- 
comed us  with  dripping  gourds  full  of  cool,  delicious 
water.  Then  they  set  before  us  a few  cooked  sweet 
potatoes,  called  here  cumara , a Quichua  word  identi- 
cal with  the  Polynesian  kumala , as  has  been  pointed 
out  by  Mr.  Cook. 

Apart  from  the  wonderful  view  of  the  canyon, 
all  we  could  see  from  our  cool  shelter  was  a couple 
of  small  grass  huts  and  a few  ancient  stone-faced 
terraces.  Two  pleasant  Indian  farmers,  Richarte 
and  Alvarez,  had  chosen  this  eagle’s  nest  for  their 
home.  They  said  they  had  found  plenty  of  terraces 
here  on  which  to  grow  their  crops  and  they  were 
usually  free  from  undesirable  visitors.  They  did  not 
speak  Spanish,  but  through  Sergeant  Carrasco  I 
learned  that  there  were  more  ruins  “a  little  farther 
along.”  In  this  country  one  never  can  tell  whether 
such  a report  is  worthy  of  credence.  “He  may  have 


318 


INCA  LAND 


been  lying”  is  a good  footnote  to  affix  to  all  hearsay 
evidence.  Accordingly,  I was  not  unduly  excited, 
nor  in  a great  hurry  to  move.  The  heat  was  still 
great,  the  water  from  the  Indian’s  spring  was  cool 
and  delicious,  and  the  rustic  wooden  bench,  hos- 
pitably covered  immediately  after  my  arrival  with 
a soft,  woolen  poncho,  seemed  most  comfortable. 
Furthermore,  the  view  was  simply  enchanting. 
Tremendous  green  precipices  fell  away  to  the  white 
rapids  of  the  Urubamba  below.  Immediately  in 
front,  on  the  north  side  of  the  valley,  was  a great 
granite  cliff  rising  2000  feet  sheer.  To  the  left  was 
the  solitary  peak  of  Huayna  Picchu,  surrounded  by 
seemingly  inaccessible  precipices.  On  all  sides  were 
rocky  cliffs.  Beyond  them  cloud-capped  mountains 
rose  thousands  of  feet  above  us. 

The  Indians  said  there  were  two  paths  to  the  out- 
side world.  Of  one  we  had  already  had  a taste ; the 
other,  they  said,  was  more  difficult  — a perilous 
path  down  the  face  of  a rocky  precipice  on  the  other 
side  of  the  ridge.  It  was  their  only  means  of  egress 
in  the  wet  season,  when  the  bridge  over  which  we 
had  come  could  not  be  maintained.  I was  not  sur- 
prised to  learn  that  they  went  away  from  home  only 
“about  once  a month.” 

Richarte  told  us  that  they  had  been  living  here 
four  years.  It  seems  probable  that,  owing  to  its 
inaccessibility,  the  canyon  had  been  unoccupied  for 
several  centuries,  but  with  the  completion  of  the 
new  government  road  settlers  began  once  more  to 
occupy  this  region.  In  time  somebody  clambered  up 
the  precipices  and  found  on  the  slopes  of  Machu 


MACHU  PICCHU 


3i9 


Picchu,  at  an  elevation  of  9000  feet  above  the  sea, 
an  abundance  of  rich  soil  conveniently  situated  on 
artificial  terraces,  in  a fine  climate.  Here  the  Indians 
had  finally  cleared  off  some  ruins,  burned  over  a few 
terraces,  and  planted  crops  of  maize,  sweet  and 
white  potatoes,  sugar  cane,  beans,  peppers,  tree 
tomatoes,  and  gooseberries.  At  first  they  appropri- 
ated some  of  the  ancient  houses  and  replaced  the 
roofs  of  wood  and  thatch.  They  found,  however, 
that  there  were  neither  springs  nor  wells  near  the 
ancient  buildings.  An  ancient  aqueduct  which  had 
once  brought  a tiny  stream  to  the  citadel  had  long 
since  disappeared  beneath  the  forest,  filled  with 
earth  washed  from  the  upper  terraces.  So,  abandon- 
ing the  shelter  of  the  ruins,  the  Indians  were  now 
enjoying  the  convenience  of  living  near  some  springs 
in  roughly  built  thatched  huts  of  their  own  design. 

Without  the  slightest  expectation  of  finding  any- 
thing more  interesting  than  the  stone-faced  terraces 
of  which  I already  had  a glimpse,  and  the  ruins  of 
two  or  three  stone  houses  such  as  we  had  encoun- 
tered at  Various  places  on  the  road  between  Ollan- 
taytambo  and  Torontoy,  I finally  left  the  cool  shade 
of  the  pleasant  little  hut  and  climbed  farther  up  the 
ridge  and  around  a slight  promontory.  Arteaga  had 
“been  here  once  before,”  and  decided  to  rest  and 
gossip  with  Richarte  and  Alvarez  in  the  hut.  They 
sent  a small  boy  with  me  as  a guide. 

Hardly  had  we  rounded  the  promontory  when  the 
character  of  the  stonework  began  to  improve.  A 
flight  of  beautifully  constructed  terraces,  each  two 
hundred  yards  long  and  ten  feet  high,  had  been 


320 


INCA  LAND 


recently  rescued  from  the  jungle  by  the  Indians, 
A forest  of  large  trees  had  been  chopped  down  and 
burned  over  to  make  a clearing  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses. Crossing  these  terraces,  I entered  the  un- 
touched forest  beyond,  and  suddenly  found  myself 
in  a maze  of  beautiful  granite  houses!  They  were 
covered  with  trees  and  moss  and  the  growth  of  cen- 
turies, but  in  the  dense  shadow,  hiding  in  bamboo 
thickets  and  tangled  vines,  could  be  seen,  here  and 
there,  walls  of  white  granite  ashlars  most  carefully 
cut  and  exquisitely  fitted  together.  Buildings  with 
windows  were  frequent.  Here  at  least  was  a “place 
far  from  town  and  conspicuous  for  its  windows.” 
Under  a carved  rock  the  little  boy  showed  me  a 
cave  beautifully  lined  with  the  finest  cut  stone. 
It  was  evidently  intended  to  be  a Royal  Mauso- 
leum. On  top  of  this  particular  boulder  a semi- 
circular building  had  been  constructed.  The  wall 
followed  the  natural  curvature  of  the  rock  and  was 
keyed  to  it  by  one  of  the  finest  examples  of  masonry 
I have  ever  seen.  This  beautiful  wall,  made  of  care- 
fully matched  ashlars  of  pure  white  granite,  espe- 
cially selected  for  its  fine  grain,  was  the  work  of  a 
master  artist.  The  interior  surface  of  the  wall  was 
broken  by  niches  and  square  stone-pegs.  The  ex- 
terior surface  was  perfectly  simple  and  unadorned. 
The  lower  courses,  of  particularly  large  ashlars, 
gave  it  a look  of  solidity.  The  upper  courses,  dimin- 
ishing in  size  toward  the  top,  lent  grace  and  deli- 
cacy to  the  structure.  The  flowing  lines,  the  sym- 
metrical arrangement  of  the  ashlars,  and  the  gradual 
gradation  of  the  courses,  combined  to  produce  a 


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AUTHOR  AS  THE  PROBABLE 
SITE  OF  TAMPU-TOCCO 


MACHU  PICCHU 


321 


wonderful  effect,  softer  and  more  pleasing  than  that 
of  the  marble  temples  of  the  Old  World.  Owing  to 
the  absence  of  mortar,  there  are  no  ugly  spaces  be- 
tween the  rocks.  They  might  have  grown  together. 

The  elusive  beauty  of  this  chaste,  undecorated 
surface  seems  to  me  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
wall  was  built  under  the  eye  of  a master  mason  who 
knew  not  the  straight  edge,  the  plumb  rule,  or  the 
square.  He  had  no  instruments  of  precision,  so  he 
had  to  depend  on  his  eye.  He  had  a good  eye,  an 
artistic  eye,  an  eye  for  symmetry  and  beauty  of 
form.  His  product  received  none  of  the  harshness  of 
mechanical  and  mathematical  accuracy.  The  appar- 
ently rectangular  blocks  are  not  really  rectangular. 
The  apparently  straight  lines  of  the  courses  are  not 
actually  straight  in  the  exact  sense  of  that  term. 

To  my  astonishment  I saw  that  this  wall  and  its 
adjoining  semicircular  temple  over  the  cave  were 
as  fine  as  the  finest  stonework  in  the  far-famed 
Temple  of  the  Sun  in  Cuzco.  Surprise  followed  sur- 
prise in  bewildering  succession.  I climbed  a marvel- 
ous great  stairway  of  large  granite  blocks,  walked 
along  a pampa  where  the  Indians  had  a small  vege- 
table garden,  and  came  into  a little  clearing.  Here 
were  the  ruins  of  two  of  the  finest  structures  I have 
ever  seen  in  Peru.  Not  only  were  they  made  of 
selected  blocks  of  beautifully  grained  white  granite; 
their  walls  contained  ashlars  of  Cyclopean  size,  ten 
feet  in  length,  and  higher  than  a man.  The  sight 
held  me  spellbound. 

Each  building  had  only  three  walls  and  was 
entirely  open  on  the  side  toward  the  clearing.  The 


322 


INCA  LAND 


principal  temple  was  lined  with  exquisitely  made 
niches,  five  high  up  at  each  end,  and  seven  on  the 
back  wall.  There  were  seven  courses  of  ashlars  in  the 
end  walls.  Under  the  seven  rear  niches  was  a rec- 
tangular block  fourteen  feet  long,  probably  a sacri- 
ficial altar.  The  building  did  not  look  as  though 
it  had  ever  had  a roof.  The  top  course  of  beauti- 
fully smooth  ashlars  was  not  intended  to  be  covered. 

The  other  temple  is  on  the  east  side  of  the  pampa. 
I called  it  the  Temple  of  the  Three  Windows.  Like 
its  neighbor,  it  is  unique  among  Inca  ruins.  Its 
eastern  wall,  overlooking  the  citadel,  is  a massive 
stone  framework  for  three  conspicuously  large  win- 
dows, obviously  too  large  to  serve  any  useful  pur- 
pose, yet  most  beautifully  made  with  the  greatest 
care  and  solidity.  This  was  clearly  a ceremonial  edi- 
fice of  peculiar  significance.  Nowhere  else  in  Peru, 
so  far  as  I know,  is  there  a similar  structure  con- 
spicuous as  “a  masonry  wall  with  three  windows.” 

These  ruins  have  no  other  name  than  that  of  the 
mountain  on  the  slopes  of  which  they  are  located. 
Had  this  place  been  occupied  uninterruptedly,  like 
Cuzco  and  Ollantaytambo,  Machu  Picchu  would 
have  retained  its  ancient  name,  but  during  the  cen- 
turies when  it  was  abandoned,  its  name  was  lost. 
Examination  showed  that  it  was  essentially  a forti- 
fied place,  a remote  fastness  protected  by  natural 
bulwarks,  of  which  man  took  advantage  to  create 
the  most  impregnable  stronghold  in  the  Andes. 
Our  subsequent  excavations  and  the  clearing  made 
in  1912,  to  be  described  in  a subsequent  volume,  has 
shown  that  this  was  the  chief  place  in  Uilcapampa. 


MACHU  PICCHU 


323 


It  did  not  take  an  expert  to  realize,  from  the 
glimpse  of  Machu  Picchu  on  that  rainy  day  in  July, 
1911,  when  Sergeant  Carrasco  and  I first  saw  it, 
that  here  were  most  extraordinary  and  interesting 
ruins.  Although  the  ridge  had  been  partly  cleared 
by  the  Indians  for  their  fields  of  maize,  so  much  of  it 
was  still  underneath  a thick  jungle  growth  — some 
walls  were  actually  supporting  trees  ten  and  twelve 
inches  in  diameter  — that  it  was  impossible  to 
determine  just  what  would  be  found  here.  As  soon 
as  I could  get  hold  of  Mr.  Tucker,  who  was  assisting 
Mr.  Hendriksen,  and  Mr.  Lanius,  who  had  gone 
down  the  Urubamba  with  Dr.  Bowman,  I asked 
them  to  make  a map  of  the  ruins.  I knew  it  would  be 
a difficult  undertaking  and  that  it  was  essential  for 
Mr.  Tucker  to  join  me  in  Arequipa  not  later  than 
the  first  of  October  for  the  ascent  of  Coropuna. 
With  the  hearty  aid  of  Richarte  and  Alvarez,  the 
surveyors  did  better  than  I expected.  In  the  ten 
days  while  they  were  at  the  ruins  they  were  able 
to  secure  data  from  which  Mr.  Tucker  afterwards 
prepared  a map  which  told  better  than  could  any 
words  of  mine  the  importance  of  this  site  and  the 
necessity  for  further  investigation. 

With  the  possible  exception  of  one  mining  pros- 
pector, no  one  in  Cuzco  had  seen  the  ruins  of  Machu 
Picchu  or  appreciated  their  importance.  No  one 
had  any  realization  of  what  an  extraordinary  place 
lay  on  top  of  the  ridge.  It  had  never  been  visited 
by  any  of  the  planters  of  the  lower  Urubamba 
Valley  who  annually  passed  over  the  road  which 
winds  through  the  canyon  two  thousand  feet  below. 


324 


INCA  LAND 


It  seems  incredible  that  this  citadel,  less  than 
three  days’  journey  from  Cuzco,  should  have  re- 
mained so  long  undescribed  by  travelers  and  com- 
paratively unknown  even  to  the  Peruvians  them- 
selves. If  the  conquistador es  ever  saw  this  wonderful 
place,  some  reference  to  it  surely  would  have  been 
made;  yet  nothing  can  be  found  which  clearly  re- 
fers to  the  ruins  of  Machu  Picchu.  Just  when  it  was 
first  seen  by  a Spanish-speaking  person  is  uncertain. 
When  the  Count  de  Sartiges  was  at  Huadquiha  in 
1834  he  was  looking  for  ruins;  yet,  although  so  near, 
he  heard  of  none  here.  From  a crude  scrawl  on  the 
walls  of  one  of  the  finest  buildings,  we  learned  that 
the  ruins  were  visited  in  1902  by  Lizarraga,  lessee 
of  the  lands  immediately  below  the  bridge  of  San 
Miguel.  This  is  the  earliest  local  record.  Yet  some 
one  must  have  visited  Machu  Picchu  long  before 
that;  because  in  1875,  as  has  been  said,  the  French 
explorer  Charles  Wiener  heard  in  Ollantaytambo 
of  there  being  ruins  at  “Huaina- Picchu  or  Matcho- 
Picchu.”  He  tried  to  find  them.  That  he  failed  was 
due  to  there  being  no  road  through  the  canyon  of 
Torontoy  and  the  necessity  of  making  a wide  detour 
through  the  pass  of  Panticalla  and  the  Lucumayo 
Valley,  a route  which  brought  him  to  the  Urubamba 
River  at  the  bridge  of  Chuquichaca,  twenty-five 
miles  below  Machu  Picchu. 

It  was  not  until  1890  that  the  Peruvian  Govern- 
ment, recognizing  the  needs  of  the  enterprising 
planters  who  were  opening  up  the  lower  valley  of 
the  Urubamba,  decided  to  construct  a mule  trail 
along  the  banks  of  the  river  through  the  grand 


DETAIL  OF  PRINCIPAL  TEMPLE  DETAIL  OF  EXTERIOR  OF  TEMPLE  OF 

MACHU  PICCHU  TPIE  THREE  WINDOWS,  MACHU 

PICCHU 


MACHU  PICCHU 


325 


canyon  to  enable  the  much-desired  coca  and  aguar- 
diente to  be  shipped  from  Huadquina,  Maranura, 
and  Santa  Ana  to  Cuzco  more  quickly  and  cheaply 
than  formerly.  This  road  avoids  the  necessity  of 
carrying  the  precious  cargoes  over  the  dangerous 
snowy  passes  of  Mt.  Veronica  and  Mt.  Salcantay, 
so  vividly  described  by  Raimondi,  de  Sartiges,  and 
others.  The  road,  however,  was  very  expensive, 
took  years  to  build,  and  still  requires  frequent  repair. 
In  fact,  even  to-day  travel  over  it  is  often  suspended 
for  several  days  or  weeks  at  a time,  following  some 
tremendous  avalanche.  Yet  it  was  this  new  road 
which  had  led  Melchor  Arteaga  to  build  his  hut 
near  the  arable  land  at  Mandor  Pampa,  where  he 
could  raise  food  for  his  family  and  offer  rough  shelter 
to  passing  travelers.  It  was  this  new  road  which 
brought  Richarte,  Alvarez,  and  their  enterprising 
friends  into  this  little-known  region,  gave  them 
the  opportunity  of  occupying  the  ancient  terraces  of 
Machu  Picchu,  which  had  lain  fallow  for  centuries, 
encouraged  them  to  keep  open  a passable  trail  over 
the  precipices,  and  made  it  feasible  for  us  to  reach 
the  ruins.  It  was  this  new  road  which  offered  us  in 
1 91 1 a virgin  field  between  Ollantaytambo  and 
Huadquina  and  enabled  us  to  learn  that  the  Incas, 
or  their  predecessors,  had  once  lived  here  in  the 
remote  fastnesses  of  the  Andes,  and  had  left  stone 
witnesses  of  the  magnificence  and  beauty  of  their 
ancient  civilization,  more  interesting  and  extensive 
than  any  which  have  been  found  since  the  days  of 
the  Spanish  Conquest  of  Peru. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  MACHU  PICCHU 

SOME  other  day  I hope  to  tell  of  the  work  of 
clearing  and  excavating  Machu  Picchu,  of  the 
life  lived  by  its  citizens,  and  of  the  ancient  towns  of 
which  it  was  the  most  important.  At  present  I must 
rest  content  with  a discussion  of  its  probable  iden- 
tity. Here  was  a powerful  citadel  tenable  against 
all  odds,  a stronghold  where  a mere  handful  of  de- 
fenders could  prevent  a great  army  from  taking  the 
place  by  assault.  Why  should  any  one  have  desired 
to  be  so  secure  from  capture  as  to  have  built  a 
fortress  in  such  an  inaccessible  place? 

The  builders  were  not  in  search  of  fields.  There 
is  so  little  arable  land  here  that  every  square  yard 
of  earth  had  to  be  terraced  in  order  to  provide 
food  for  the  inhabitants.  They  were  not  looking  for 
comfort  or  convenience.  Safety  was  their  primary 
consideration.  They  were  sufficiently  civilized  to 
practice  intensive  agriculture,  sufficiently  skillful 
to  equal  the  best  masonry  the  world  has  ever  seen, 
sufficiently  ingenious  to  make  delicate  bronzes,  and 
sufficiently  advanced  in  art  to  realize  the  beauty 
of  simplicity.  What  could  have  induced  such  a peo- 
ple to  select  this  remote  fastness  of  the  Andes,  with 
all  its  disadvantages,  as  the  site  for  their  capital, 
unless  they  were  fleeing  from  powerful  enemies. 

The  thought  will  already  have  occurred  to  the 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  MACHU  PICCHU  327 

reader  that  the  Temple  of  the  Three  Windows  at 
Machu  Picchu  fits  the  words  of  that  native  writer 
who  had  “heard  from  a child  the  most  ancient 
traditions  and  histories,”  including  the  story  al- 
ready quoted  from  Sir  Clements  Markham’s  trans- 
lation that  Manco  Ccapac,  the  first  Inca,  “ordered 
works  to  be  executed  at  the  place  of  his  birth ; con- 
sisting of  a masonry  wall  with  three  windows,  which 
were  emblems  of  the  house  of  his  fathers  whence  he 
descended.  The  first  window  was  called  ‘Tampu- 
tocco.’”  Although  none  of  the  other  chroniclers 
gives  the  story  of  the  first  Inca  ordering  a memorial 
wall  to  be  built  at  the  place  of  his  birth,  they  nearly 
all  tell  of  his  having  come  from  a place  called 
Tampu-tocco,  “an  inn  or  country  place  remarkable 
for  its  windows.”  Sir  Clements  Markham,  in  his 
“ Incas  of  Peru,”  refers  to  Tampu-tocco  as  “the  hill 
with  the  three  openings  or  windows.” 

The  place  assigned  by  all  the  chroniclers  as  the 
location  of  the  traditional  Tampu-tocco,  as  has  been 
said,  is  Paccaritampu,  about  nine  miles  southwest  of 
Cuzco.  Paccaritampu  has  some  interesting  ruins 
and  caves,  but  careful  examination  shows  that  while 
there  are  more  than  three  openings  to  its  caves, 
there  are  no  windows  in  its  buildings.  The  build- 
ings of  Machu  Picchu,  on  the  other  hand,  have  far 
more  windows  than  any  other  important  ruin  in 
Peru.  The  climate  of  Paccaritampu,  like  that  of 
most  places  in  the  highlands,  is  too  severe  to  invite 
or  encourage  the  use  of  windows.  The  climate 
of  Machu  Picchu  is  mild,  consequently  the  use  of 
windows  was  natural  and  agreeable. 


INCA  LAND 


328 

So  far  as  I know,  there  is  no  place  in  Peru  where 
the  ruins  consist  of  anything  like  a “masonry  wall 
with  three  windows”  of  such  a ceremonial  character 
as  is  here  referred  to,  except  at  Machu  Picchu. 
It  would  certainly  seem  as  though  the  Temple  of 
the  Three  Windows,  the  most  significant  structure 
within  the  citadel,  is  the  building  referred  to  by 
Pachacuti  Yamqui  Salcamayhua. 

The  principal  difficulty  with  this  theory  is  that 
while  the  first  meaning  of  tocco  in  Holguin’s  stand- 
ard Quichua  dictionary  is  “ ventana ” or  “window,” 
and  while  “window”  is  the  only  meaning  given  this 
important  word  in  Markham’s  revised  Quichua 
dictionary  (1908),  a dictionary  compiled  from  many 
sources,  the  second  meaning  of  tocco  given  by  Hol- 
guin is  11  alacena”  “a  cupboard  set  in  a wall.”  Un- 
doubtedly this  means  what  we  call,  in  the  ruins  of 
the  houses  of  the  Incas,  a niche.  Now  the  drawings, 
crude  as  they  are,  in  Sir  Clements  Markham’s 
translation  of  the  Salcamayhua  manuscript,  do  give 
the  impression  of  niches  rather  than  of  windows. 
Does  Tampu-tocco  mean  a tampu  remarkable  for  its 
niches?  At  Paccaritampu  there  do  not  appear  to  be 
any  particularly  fine  niches;  while  at  Machu  Picchu, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  very  beautiful 
niches,  especially  in  the  cave  which  has  been  re- 
ferred to  as  a “ Royal  Mausoleum.”  As  a matter  of 
fact,  nearly  all  the  finest  ruins  of  the  Incas  have 
excellent  niches.  Since  niches  were  so  common  a 
feature  of  Inca  architecture,  the  chances  are  that 
Sir  Clements  is  right  in  translating  Salcamayhua  as 
he  did  and  in  calling  Tampu-tocco  “the  hill  with 


THE  MASONRY  WALL  WITH  THREE  WINDOWS,  MACHU  PICCHU 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  MACHU  PICCHU  329 

the  three  openings  or  windows.”  In  any  case  Machu 
Picchu  fits  the  story  far  better  than  does  Paccari- 
tampu.  However,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  early 
writers  all  repeat  the  story  that  Tampu-tocco  was 
at  Paccaritampu,  it  would  be  absurd  to  say  that 
they  did  not  know  what  they  were  talking  about, 
even  though  the  actual  remains  at  or  near  Paccari- 
tampu do  not  fit  the  requirements. 

It  would  be  easier  to  adopt  Paccaritampu  as  the 
site  of  Tampu-tocco  were  it  not  for  the  legal  records 
of  an  inquiry  made  by  Toledo  at  the  time  when  he 
put  the  last  Inca  to  death.  Fifteen  Indians,  de- 
scended from  those  who  used  to  live  near  Las 
Salinas,  the  important  salt  works  near  Cuzco,  on 
being  questioned,  agreed  that  they  had  heard  their 
fathers  and  grandfathers  repeat  the  tradition  that 
when  the  first  Inca,  Manco  Ccapac,  captured  their 
lands,  he  came  from  Tampu-tocco.  They  did  not 
say  that  the  first  Inca  came  from  Paccaritampu, 
which,  it  seems  to  me,  would  have  been  a most 
natural  thing  for  them  to  have  said  if  this  were  the 
general  belief  of  the  natives.  In  addition  there  is  the 
still  older  testimony  of  some  Indians  born  before 
the  arrival  of  the  first  Spaniards,  who  were  examined 
at  a legal  investigation  in  1570.  A chief,  aged  ninety- 
two,  testified  that  Manco  Ccapac  came  out  of  a cave 
called  Tocco,  and  that  he  was  lord  of  the  town  near 
that  cave.  Not  one  of  the  witnesses  stated  that 
Manco  Ccapac  came  from  Paccaritampu,  although 
it  is  difficult  to  imagine  why  they  should  not  have 
done  so  if,  as  the  contemporary  historians  believed, 
this  was  really  the  original  Tampu-tocco.  The 


330 


INCA  LAND 


chroniclers  were  willing  enough  to  accept  the  inter- 
esting cave  near  Paccaritampu  as  the  place  where 
Manco  Ccapac  was  born,  and  from  which  he  came 
to  conquer  Cuzco.  Why  were  the  sworn  witnesses 
so  reticent?  It  seems  hardly  possible  that  they 
should  have  forgotten  where  Tampu-tocco  was 
supposed  to  have  been.  Was  their  reticence  due  to 
the  fact  that  its  actual  whereabouts  had  been  suc- 
cessfully kept  secret?  Manco  Ccapac’s  home  was 
that  Tampu-tocco  to  which  the  followers  of  Pacha- 
cuti  VI  fled  with  his  body  after  the  overthrow  of  the 
old  regime,  a very  secluded  and  holy  place.  Did 
they  know  it  was  in  the  same  fastnesses  of  the 
Andes  to  which  in  the  days  of  Pizarro  the  young 
Inca  Manco  had  fled  from  Cuzco?  Was  this  the 
cause  of  their  reticence? 

Certainly  the  requirements  of  Tampu-tocco  are 
met  at  Machu  Picchu.  The  splendid  natural  de- 
fenses of  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Urubamba  made 
it  an  ideal  refuge  for  the  descendants  of  the  Amautas 
during  the  centuries  of  lawlessness  and  confusion 
which  succeeded  the  barbarian  invasions  from  the 
plains  to  the  east  and  south.  The  scarcity  of  violent 
earthquakes  and  also  its  healthfulness,  both  marked 
characteristics  of  Tampu-tocco,  are  met  at  Machu 
Picchu.  It  is  worth  noting  that  the  existence  of 
Machu  Picchu  might  easily  have  been  concealed 
from  the  common  people.  At  the  time  of  the  Span- 
ish Conquest  its  location  might  have  been  known 
only  to  the  Inca  and  his  priests. 

So,  notwithstanding  the  belief  of  the  historians,  I 
feel  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  first  name 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  MACHU  PICCHU  331 

of  the  ruins  at  Machu  Picchu  was  Tampu-tocco. 
Here  Pachacuti  VI  was  buried ; here  was  the  capital 
of  the  little  kingdom  where  during  the  centuries 
between  the  Amautas  and  the  Incas  there  was  kept 
alive  the  wisdom,  skill,  and  best  traditions  of  the 
ancient  folk  who  had  developed  the  civilization  of 
Peru. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  defenses  of  Cuzco 
were  of  little  avail  before  the  onslaught  of  the  war- 
like invaders.  The  great  organization  of  farmers 
and  masons,  so  successful  in  its  ability  to  perform 
mighty  feats  of  engineering  with  primitive  tools  of 
wood,  stone,  and  bronze,  had  crumbled  away  before 
the  attacks  of  savage  hordes  who  knew  little  of  the 
arts  of  peace.  The  defeated  leaders  had  to  choose 
a region  where  they  might  live  in  safety  from  their 
fierce  enemies.  Furthermore,  in  the  environs  of 
Machu  Picchu  they  found  every  variety  of  climate 
— valleys  so  low  as  to  produce  the  precious  coca , 
yucca , and  plantain , the  fruits  and  vegetables  of  the 
tropics;  slopes  high  enough  to  be  suitable  for  many 
varieties  of  maize,  quinoa,  and  other  cereals,  as  well 
as  their  favorite  root  crops,  including  both  sweet 
and  white  potatoes,  oca , anu,  and  ullucu.  Here, 
within  a few  hours’  journey,  they  could  find  days 
warm  enough  to  dry  and  cure  the  coca  leaves;  nights 
cold  enough  to  freeze  potatoes  in  the  approved 
aboriginal  fashion. 

Although  the  amount  of  arable  land  which  could 
be  made  available  with  the  most  careful  terracing 
was  not  large  enough  to  support  a very  great  popu- 
lation, Machu  Picchu  offered  an  impregnable  citadel 


332 


INCA  LAND 


to  the  chiefs  and  priests  and  their  handful  of  fol- 
lowers who  were  obliged  to  flee  from  the  rich  plains 
near  Cuzco  and  the  broad,  pleasant  valley  of  Yucay. 
Only  dire  necessity  and  terror  could  have  forced  a 
people  which  had  reached  such  a stage  in  engineer- 
ing, architecture,  and  agriculture,  to  leave  hospitable 
valleys  and  tablelands  for  rugged  canyons.  Cer- 
tainly there  is  no  part  of  the  Andes  less  fitted  by 
nature  to  meet  the  requirements  of  an  agricultural 
folk,  unless  their  chief  need  was  a safe  refuge  and 
retreat. 

Here  the  wise  remnant  of  the  Amautas  ultimately 
developed  great  ability.  In  the  face  of  tremendous 
natural  obstacles  they  utilized  their  ancient  craft  to 
wrest  a living  from  the  soil.  Hemmed  in  between 
the  savages  of  the  Amazon  jungles  below  and  their 
enemies  on  the  plateau  above,  they  must  have  car- 
ried on  border  warfare  for  generations.  Aided  by 
the  temperate  climate  in  which  they  lived,  and  the 
ability  to  secure  a wide  variety  of  food  within  a few 
hours’  climb  up  or  down  from  their  towns  and 
cities,  they  became  a hardy,  vigorous  tribe  which  in 
the  course  of  time  burst  its  boundaries,  fought  its 
way  back  to  the  rich  Cuzco  Valley,  overthrew  the 
descendants  of  the  ancient  invaders  and  established, 
with  Cuzco  as  a capital,  the  Empire  of  the  Incas. 

After  the  first  Inca,  Manco  Ccapac,  had  estab- 
lished himself  in  Cuzco,  what  more  natural  than 
that  he  should  have  built  a fine  temple  in  honor  of 
his  ancestors.  Ancestor  worship  was  common  to  the 
Incas,  and  nothing  would  have  been  more  reason- 
able than  the  construction  of  the  Temple  of  the 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  MACHU  PICCHU  333 

Three  Windows.  As  the  Incas  grew  in  power  and 
extended  their  rule  over  the  ancient  empire  of  the 
Cuzco  Amautas  from  whom  they  traced  their  de- 
scent, superstitious  regard  would  have  led  them  to 
establish  their  chief  temples  and  palaces  in  the  city 
of  Cuzco  itself.  There  was  no  longer  any  necessity 
to  maintain  the  citadel  of  Tampu-tocco.  It  was 
probably  deserted,  while  Cuzco  grew  and  the  Inca 
Empire  flourished. 

As  the  Incas  increased  in  power  they  invented 
various  myths  to  account  for  their  origin.  One  of 
these  traced  their  ancestry  to  the  islands  of  Lake 
Titicaca.  Finally  the  very  location  of  Manco 
Ccapac’s  birthplace  was  forgotten  by  the  common 
people  — although  undoubtedly  known  to  the  priests 
and  those  who  preserved  the  most  sacred  secrets  of 
the  Incas. 

Then  came  Pizarro  and  the  bigoted  conquista- 
dores.  The  native  chiefs  faced  the  necessity  of  saving 
whatever  was  possible  of  the  ancient  religion.  The 
Spaniards  coveted  gold  and  silver.  The  most  pre- 
cious possessions  of  the  Incas,  however,  were  not 
images  and  utensils,  but  the  sacred  Virgins  of  the 
Sun,  who,  like  the  Vestal  Virgins  of  Rome,  were 
from  their  earliest  childhood  trained  to  the  service 
of  the  great  Sun  God.  Looked  at  from  the  stand- 
point of  an  agricultural  people  who  needed  the  sun 
to  bring  their  food  crops  to  fruition  and  keep  them 
from  hunger,  it  was  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
placate  him  with  sacrifices  and  secure  the  good 
effects  of  his  smiling  face.  If  he  delayed  his  coming 
or  kept  himself  hidden  behind  the  clouds,  the  maize 


334 


INCA  LAND 


would  mildew  and  the  ears  would  not  properly 
ripen.  If  he  did  not  shine  with  his  accustomed 
brightness  after  the  harvest,  the  ears  of  corn  could 
not  be  properly  dried  and  kept  over  to  the  next 
year.  In  short,  any  unusual  behavior  on  the  part  of 
the  sun  meant  hunger  and  famine.  Consequently 
their  most  beautiful  daughters  were  consecrated  to 
his  service,  as  “Virgins”  who  lived  in  the  temple 
and  ministered  to  the  wants  of  priests  and  rulers. 
Human  sacrifice  had  long  since  been  given  up  in 
Peru  and  its  place  taken  by  the  consecration  of  these 
damsels.  Some  of  the  Virgins  of  the  Sun  in  Cuzco 
were  captured.  Others  escaped  and  accompanied 
Manco  into  the  inaccessible  canyons  of  Uilcapampa. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  Father  Calancha 
relates  the  trials  of  the  first  two  missionaries  in 
this  region,  who  at  the  peril  of  their  lives  urged  the 
Inca  to  let  them  visit  the  “University  of  Idolatry,” 
at  “Vilcabamba  Viejo,”  “the  largest  city”  in  the 
province.  Machu  Picchu  admirably  answers  its  re- 
quirements. Here  it  would  have  been  very  easy  for 
the  Inca  Titu  Cusi  to  have  kept  the  monks  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Sacred  City  for  three  weeks  without 
their  catching  a single  glimpse  of  its  unique  temples 
and  remarkable  palaces.  It  would  have  been  possi- 
ble for  Titu  Cusi  to  bring  Friar  Marcos  and  Friar 
Diego  to  the  village  of  Intihuatana  near  San  Miguel, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Machu  Picchu  cliffs.  The  sugar 
planters  of  the  lower  Urubamba  Valley  crossed  the 
bridge  of  San  Miguel  annually  for  twenty  years  in 
blissful  ignorance  of  what  lay  on  top  of  the  ridge 
above  them.  So  the  friars  might  easily  have  been 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  MACHU  PICCHU  335 

lodged  in  huts  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  without 
their  being  aware  of  the  extent  and  importance  of 
the  Inca  “university.”  Apparently  they  returned 
to  Puquiura  with  so  little  knowledge  of  the  archi- 
tectural character  of  “Vilcabamba  Viejo”  that  no 
description  of  it  could  be  given  their  friends,  even- 
tually to  be  reported  by  Calancha.  Furthermore, 
the  difficult  journey  across  country  from  Puquiura 
might  easily  have  taken  “three  days.” 

Finally,  it  appears  from  Dr,  Eaton’s  studies  that 
the  last  residents  of  Machu  Picchu  itself  were 
mostly  women.  In  the  burial  caves  which  we  have 
found  in  the  region  roundabout  Machu  Picchu  the 
proportion  of  skulls  belonging  to  men  is  very  large. 
There  are  many  so-called  “trepanned ” skulls.  Some 
of  them  seem  to  belong  to  soldiers  injured  in  war  by 
having  their  skulls  crushed  in,  either  with  clubs  or 
the  favorite  sling-stones  of  the  Incas.  In  no  case 
have  we  found  more  than  twenty-five  skulls  without 
encountering  some  “trepanned”  specimens  among 
them.  In  striking  contrast  is  the  result  of  the  exca- 
vations at  Machu  Picchu,  where  one  hundred  sixty- 
four  skulls  were  found  in  the  burial  caves,  yet  not 
one  had  been  “trepanned.”  Of  the  one  hundred 
thirty-five  skeletons  whose  sex  could  be  accurately 
determined  by  Dr.  Eaton,  one  hundred  nine  were 
females.  Furthermore,  it  was  in  the  graves  of  the 
females  that  the  finest  artifacts  were  found,  showing 
that  they  were  persons  of  no  little  importance.  Not 
a single  representative  of  the  robust  male  of  the 
warrior  type  was  found  in  the  burial  caves  of 
Machu  Picchu. 


INCA  LAND 


336 

Another  striking  fact  brought  out  by  Dr.  Eaton 
is  that  some  of  the  female  skeletons  represent 
individuals  from  the  seacoast.  This  fits  in  with 
Calancha’s  statement  that  Titu  Cusi  tempted  the 
monks  not  only  with  beautiful  women  of  the  high- 
lands, but  also  with  those  who  came  from  the  tribes 
of  the  Yungas,  or  “warm  valleys/ * The  “warm 
valleys’ ’ may  be  those  of  the  rubber  country,  but 
Sir  Clements  Markham  thought  the  oases  of  the 
coast  were  meant. 

Furthermore,  as  Mr.  Safford  has  pointed  out, 
among  the  artifacts  discovered  at  Machu  Picchu 
was  a “snuffing  tube”  intended  for  use  with  the 
narcotic  snuff  which  was  employed  by  the  priests 
and  necromancers  to  induce  a hypnotic  state.  This 
powder  was  made  from  the  seeds  of  the  tree  which 
the  Incas  called  huilca  or  uilca,  which,  as  has  been 
pointed  out  in  Chapter  XI,  grows  near  these  ruins. 
This  seems  to  me  to  furnish  additional  evidence 
of  the  identity  of  Machu  Picchu  with  Calancha’s 
“ Vilcabamba.” 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  ruins  of  Machu 
Picchu  satisfy  the  requirements  of  “the  largest  city, 
in  which  was  the  University  of  Idolatry.”  Until 
some  one  can  find  the  ruins  of  another  important 
place  within  three  days’  journey  of  Pucyura  which 
was  an  important  religious  center  and  whose  skeletal 
remains  are  chiefly  those  of  women,  I am  inclined 
to  believe  that  this  was  the  “Vilcabamba  Viejo”  of 
Calancha,  just  as  Espiritu  Pampa  was  the  “Vilca- 
bamba Viejo”  of  Ocampo. 

In  the  interesting  account  of  the  last  Incas  pur- 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  MACHU  PICCHU  337 

porting  to  be  by  Titu  Cusi,  but  actually  written  in 
excellent  Spanish  by  Friar  Marcos,  he  says  that  his 
father,  Manco,  fleeing  from  Cuzco  went  first  “to 
Vilcabamba,  the  head  of  all  that  province.” 

In  the  “ Anales  del  Peru ” Montesinos  says  that 
Francisco  Pizarro,  thinking  that  the  Inca  Manco 
wished  to  make  peace  with  him,  tried  to  please  the 
Inca  by  sending  him  a present  of  a very  fine  pony 
and  a mulatto  to  take  care  of  it.  In  place  of  re- 
warding the  messenger,  the  Inca  killed  both  man 
and  beast.  When  Pizarro  was  informed  of  this,  he 
took  revenge  on  Manco  by  cruelly  abusing  the  Inca’s 
favorite  wife,  and  putting  her  to  death.  She  begged 
of  her  attendants  that  “when  she  should  be  dead 
they  would  put  her  remains  in  a basket  and  let  it 
float  down  the  Yucay  [or  Urubamba]  River,  that  the 
current  might  take  it  to  her  husband,  the  Inca.’’ 
She  must  have  believed  that  at  that  time  Manco 
was  near  this  river.  Machu  Picchu  is  on  its  banks. 
Espiritu  Pampa  is  not. 

We  have  already  seen  how  Manco  finally  estab- 
lished himself  at  Uiticos,  where  he  restored  in  some 
degree  the  fortunes  of  his  house.  Surrounded  by 
fertile  valleys,  not  too  far  removed  from  the  great 
highway  which  the  Spaniards  were  obliged  to  use  in 
passing  from  Lima  to  Cuzco,  he  could  readily  attack 
them.  At  Machu  Picchu  he  would  not  have  been  so 
conveniently  located  for  robbing  the  Spanish  cara- 
vans nor  for  supplying  his  followers  with  arable 
lands. 

There  is  abundant  archeological  evidence  that  the 
citadel  of  Machu  Picchu  was  at  one  time  occupied 


338 


INCA  LAND 


by  the  Incas  and  partly  built  by  them  on  the  ruins 
of  a far  older  city.  Much  of  the  pottery  is  unques- 
tionably of  the  so-called  Cuzco  style,  used  by  the 
last  Incas.  The  more  recent  buildings  resemble 
those  structures  on  the  island  of  Titicaca  said  to 
have  been  built  by  the  later  Incas.  They  also  re- 
semble the  fortress  of  Uiticos,  at  Rosaspata,  built 
by  Manco  about  1537.  Furthermore,  they  are  by 
far  the  largest  and  finest  ruins  in  the  mountains 
of  the  old  province  of  Uilcapampa  and  represent 
the  place  which  would  naturally  be  spoken  of  by 
Titu  Cusi  as  the  “head  of  the  province.”  Espiritu 
Pampa  does  not  satisfy  the  demands  of  a place 
which  was  so  important  as  to  give  its  name  to  the  en- 
tire province,  to  be  referred  to  as  “the  largest  city.” 

It  seems  quite  possible  that  the  inaccessible,  for- 
gotten citadel  of  Machu  Picchu  was  the  place  chosen 
by  Manco  as  the  safest  refuge  for  those  Virgins  of 
the  Sun  who  had  successfully  escaped  from  Cuzco  in 
the  days  of  Pizarro.  For  them  and  their  attendants 
Manco  probably  built  many  of  the  newer  buildings 
and  repaired  some  of  the  older  ones.  Here  they 
lived  out  their  days,  secure  in  the  knowledge  that 
no  Indians  would  ever  breathe  to  the  conquistador es 
the  secret  of  their  sacred  refuge. 

When  the  worship  of  the  sun  actually  ceased 
on  the  heights  of  Machu  Picchu  no  one  can  tell. 
That  the  secret  of  its  existence  was  so  well  kept  is 
one  of  the  marvels  of  Andean  history.  Unless  one 
accepts  the  theories  of  its  identity  with  “Tampu- 
tocco”  and  “Vilcabamba  Viejo,”  there  is  no  clear 
reference  to  Machu  Picchu  until  1875,  when  Charles 
Wiener  heard  about  it. 


THE  GORGES,  OPENING  WIDE  APART,  REVEAL  UILCAPAMPA  S; 


^ ITE  CITADEL,  THE  CROWN  OF  INCA  LAND:  MACHU  PICCHU 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  MACHU  PICCHU  339 

Some  day  we  may  be  able  to  find  a reference  in  one 
of  the  documents  of  the  sixteenth  or  seventeenth 
centuries  which  will  indicate  that  the  energetic 
Viceroy  Toledo,  or  a contemporary  of  his,  knew  of 
this  marvelous  citadel  and  visited  it.  Writers  like 
Cieza  de  Leon  and  Polo  de  Ondegardo,  who  were 
assiduous  in  collecting  information  about  all  the 
holy  places  of  the  Incas,  give  the  names  of  many 
places  which  as  yet  we  have  not  been  able  to  identify. 
Among  them  we  may  finally  recognize  the  temples 
of  Machu  Picchu.  On  the  other  hand,  it  seems 
likely  that  if  any  of  the  Spanish  soldiers,  priests,  or 
other  chroniclers  had  seen  this  citadel,  they  would 
have  described  its  chief  edifices  in  unmistakable 
terms. 

Until  further  light  can  be  thrown  on  this  fascinat- 
ing problem  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that  at 
Machu  Picchu  we  have  the  ruins  of  Tampu-tocco, 
the  birthplace  of  the  first  Inca,  Manco  Ccapac,  and 
also  the  ruins  of  a sacred  city  of  the  last  Incas. 
Surely  this  granite  citadel,  which  has  made  such  a 
strong  appeal  to  us  on  account  of  its  striking  beauty 
and  the  indescribable  charm  of  its  surroundings, 
appears  to  have  had  a most  interesting  history.  Se- 
lected about  800  a.d.  as  the  safest  place  of  refuge 
for  the  last  remnants  of  the  old  regime  fleeing  from 
southern  invaders,  it  became  the  site  of  the  capital  of 
a new  kingdom,  and  gave  birth  to  the  most  remarka- 
ble family  which  South  America  has  ever  seen.  Aban- 
doned, about  1300,  when  Cuzco  once  more  flashed 
into  glory  as  the  capital  of  the  Peruvian  Empire,  it 
seems  to  have  been  again  sought  out  in  time  of 


340 


INCA  LAND 


trouble,  when  in  1534  another  foreign  invader  ar« 
rived  — this  time  from  Europe  — with  a burning 
desire  to  extinguish  all  vestiges  of  the  ancient  re- 
ligion. In  its  last  state  it  became  the  home  and 
refuge  of  the  Virgins  of  the  Sun,  priestesses  of  the 
most  humane  cult  of  aboriginal  America.  Here, 
concealed  in  a canyon  of  remarkable  grandeur,  pro- 
tected by  art  and  nature,  these  consecrated  women 
gradually  passed  away,  leaving  no  known  descend- 
ants, nor  any  records  other  than  the  masonry  walls 
and  artifacts  to  be  described  in  another  volume. 
Whoever  they  were,  whatever  name  be  finally  as- 
signed to  this  site  by  future  historians,  of  this  I feel 
sure  — that  few  romances  can  ever  surpass  that  of 
the  granite  citadel  on  top  of  the  beetling  precipices 
of  Machu  Picchu,  the  crown  of  Inca  Land. 


THE  END 


GLOSSARY 


GLOSSARY 


Afiu:  A species  of  nasturtium 
with  edible  roots. 

Aryballus:  A bottle-shaped  vase 
with  pointed  bottom. 

Azequia:  An  irrigation  ditch  or 
conduit. 

Bar-hold:  A stone  cylinder  or 
pin,  let  into  a gatepost  in 
such  a way  as  to  permit  the 
gate  bar  to  be  tied  to  it. 
Sometimes  the  bar-hold  is 
part  of  one  of  the  ashlars  of 
the  gatepost.  Bar-holds  are 
usually  found  in  the  gateway 
of  a compound  or  group  of 
Inca  houses. 

Coca:  Shrub  from  which  co- 
caine is  extracted.  The 
dried  leaves  are  chewed  to 
secure  the  desired  deadening 
effect  of  the  drug. 

Conquistadores : Spanish  soldiers 
engaged  in  the  conquest  of 
America. 

Eye-bonder:  A narrow,  rough 
ashlar  in  one  end  of  which  a 
chamfered  hole  has  been  cut. 
Usually  about  2 feet  long,  6 
inches  wide,  and  2 inches 
thick,  it  was  bonded  into 
the  wall  of  a gable  at  right 
angles  to  its  slope  and  flush 
with  its  surface.  To  it  the 
purlins  of  the  roof  could  be 
fastened.  Eye-bonders  are 
also  found  projecting  above 
the  lintel  of  a gateway  to 
a compound.  If  the  “bar- 
holds”  were  intended  to 
secure  the  horizontal  bar  of 


an  important  gate,  these  eye- 
bonders  may  have  been  for 
a vertical  bar. 

Gobernador:  The  Spanish-speak- 
ing town  magistrate.  The 
alcaldes  are  his  Indian  aids. 

Habas  beans : Broad  beans. 

Huaca : A sacred  or  holy  place  or 
thing,  sometimes  a boulder. 
Often  applied  to  a piece  of 
prehistoric  pottery. 

Manana:  To-morrow,  or  by  and 
by.  The  “manana  habit”  is 
Spanish-American  procrasti- 
nation. 

Mestizo : A half-breed  of  Spanish 
and  Indian  ancestry. 

Milpa:  A word  used  in  Central 
America  for  a small  farm  or 
clearing.  The  milpa  system 
of  agriculture  involves  clear- 
ing the  forest  by  fire,  destroys 
valuable  humus  and  forces 
the  farmer  to  seek  new  fields 
frequently. 

Montana:  Jungle,  forest.  The 
term  usually  applied  by  Pe- 
ruvians to  the  heavily  for- 
ested slopes  of  the  Eastern 
Andean  valleys  and  the 
Amazon  Basin. 

Oca:  Hardy,  edible  root,  related 
to  sheep  sorrel. 

Quebrada:  A gorge  or  ravine. 

Quipu : Knotted,  parti-colored 

strings  used  by  the  ancient 
Peruvians  to  keep  records.  A 
mnemonic  device. 

Roof-peg:  A roughly  cylindrical 
block  of  stone  bonded  into 


344 


GLOSSARY 


a gable  wall  and  allowed  to 
project  12  or  15  inches  on  the 
outside.  Used  in  connection 
with  “ eye-bonders,”  the  roof- 
pegs  served  as  points  to  which 
the  roof  could  be  tied  down. 

Sol : Peruvian  silver  dollar,  worth 
about  two  shillings  or  a lit- 
tle less  than  half  a gold  dol- 
lar. 

Soroche:  Mountain-sickness. 

Stone-peg:  A roughly  cylindrical 
block  of  stone  bonded  into 
the  walls  of  a house  and  pro- 
jecting 10  or  12  inches  on  the 
inside  so  as  to  permit  of  its 
being  used  as  a clothes-peg. 
Stone-pegs  are  often  found 
alternating  with  niches  and 


placed  on  a level  with  the 
lintels  of  the  niches. 

Temblor:  A slight  earthquake. 

Temporales:  Small  fields  of  grain 
which  cannot  be  irrigated 
and  so  depend  on  the  weather 
for  their  moisture. 

Teniente  gobernador:  Adminis- 
trative officer  of  a small 
village  or  hamlet. 

Terremoto:  A severe  earthquake. 

Tesoro:  Treasure. 

Tutu:  A hardy  variety  of  white 
potato  not  edible  in  a fresh 
state,  used  for  making  chuno, 
after  drying,  freezing,  and 
pressing  out  the  bitter  juices. 

Ulluca:  An  edible  root. 

Viejo:  Old. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

OF  THE 

PERUVIAN  EXPEDITIONS  OF  YALE  UNIVERSITY 
AND  THE  NATIONAL  GEOGRAPHIC  SOCIETY 

Thomas  Barbour: 

Reptiles  Collected  by  Yale  Peruvian  Expedition  of  1912.  Pro - 
ceedings  of  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia , lxv, 
505-507,  September,  1913.  1 pi. 

(With  G.  K.  Noble:) 

Amphibians  and  Reptiles  from  Southern  Peru  Collected  by 
Peruvian  Expedition  of  1914- 1915.  Proceedings  of  U.S.  Na- 
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Hiram  Bingham: 

The  Ruins  of  Choqquequirau.  American  Anthropologist , xil, 
505-525,  October,  1910.  Illus.,  4 pi.,  map. 

Across  South  America.  Boston,  Houghton  Mifflin  Company, 
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Preliminary  Report  of  the  Yale  Peruvian  Expedition.  Bulletin 
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Vitcos,  The  Last  Inca  Capital.  Proceedings  of  American  Anti- 
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A Search  for  the  Last  Inca  Capital.  Harper's  Magazine,  cxxv, 
696-705,  October,  1912.  Illus. 

The  Discovery  of  Machu  Picchu.  Ibid.,  CXXVI,  709-719,  April, 
1913.  Illus. 

In  the  Wonderland  of  Peru.  National  Geographic  Magazine, 
xxiv,  387-573,  April,  1913.  Illus.,  maps,  plans. 

The  Investigation  of  Pre-Historic  Human  Remains  Found  near 
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The  Ruins  of  Espiritu  Pampa,  Peru.  American  Anthropologist, 
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34« 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


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.(With  Dr.  George  S.  Jamieson:) 

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Isaiah  Bowman: 

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Results  of  Yale  Peruvian  Expedition  of  1911,  Orthoptera  (Ex- 
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349 

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Alexander  W.  Evans: 

Hepaticse:  Yale  Peruvian  Expedition  of  1911.  Trans.  Conn. 
Academy  Arts  and  Sciences,  xviii,  291-345,  April,  1914. 


350  , BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Harry  B.  Ferrts,  M.D.: 

The  Indians  of  Cuzco  and  the  Apurimac.  Memoirs , American 
Anthropological  Assoc.,  hi,  No.  2,  59-148,  1916.  60  pi. 

Anthropological  Studies  on  the  Quichua  and  Machiganga  In- 
dians. Trans.  Conn.  Academy  Arts  and  Sciences , xxv,  1-92, 
April,  1921.  21  pi.,  map. 

Harry  W.  Foote: 

(With  W.  H.  Buell:) 

The  Composition,  Structure  and  Hardness  of  some  Peruvian 
Bronze  Axes.  American  Journal  of  Science , xxxiv,  128-132, 
August,  1912.  Illus. 

Herbert  E.  Gregory: 

The  Gravels  at  Cuzco.  American  Journal  of  Science,  xxxvi,  No. 
21 1,  15-29,  July,  1913.  Illus.,  map. 

The  La  Paz  Gorge.  Ibid.,  xxxvi,  141-150,  August,  1913.  Illus. 

A Geographical  Sketch  of  Titicaca,  the  Island  of  the  Sun.  Bul- 
letin of  American  Geographical  Society,  xlv,  561-575,  August, 
1913.  4 pi.,  map. 

Geologic  Sketch  of  Titicaca  Island  and  Adjoining  Areas.  Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Science,  xxxvi,  No.  213,  187-213,  September, 
1913.  Illus.,  maps. 

Geologic  Reconnaissance  of  the  Ayusbamba  Fossil  Beds.  Ibid., 
xxxvii,  No.  218,  125-140,  February,  1914.  Illus.,  map. 

The  Rodadero;  A Fault  Plane  of  Unusual  Aspect.  Ibid.,  xxxvii, 
No.  220,  289-298,  April,  1914.  Illus. 

A Geologic  Reconnaissance  of  the  Cuzco  Valley.  Ibid.,  xli,  No. 
241,  1-100,  January,  1916.  Illus.,  maps. 

Osgood  Hardy: 

Cuzco  and  Apurimac.  Bulletin  of  American  Geographical  Society , 
xlvi,  No.  7,  500-512,  1914.  Illus.,  map. 

The  Indians  of  the  Department  of  Cuzco.  American  Anthropolo- 
gist, xxi,  1-27,  January-March,  1919.  9 pi. 

George  Grant  MacCurdy: 

Surgery  among  the  Ancient  Peruvians.  Art  and  Archaeology, 
vii,  No.  9,  381-394,  December,  1918.  Illus.,  plates. 

A Remarkable  Human  Lower  Jaw  from  Peru.  American  Jour- 
nal of  Physical  Anthropology , V,  No.  1,  17-20,  January- 
March,  1922.  Plates. 

Sir  Clements  Markham: 

Mr.  Bingham  in  Vilcapampa,  Geographical  Journal,  xxxvm, 
No.  6,  590-591,  December,  1911.  1 pi. 

C.  H.  Mathewson: 

A Metallographic  Description  of  Some  Ancient  Peruvian 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  351 

Bronzes  from  Machu  Picchu.  American  Journal  of  Science,  XL, 
No.  240,  525-602,  December,  1915.  Illus.,  plates. 

P.  R.  Myers: 

Results  of  Yale  Peruvian  Expedition  of  1911  — Addendum  to 
the  Hymenoptera-Ichneumonoidea.  Proceedings  of  U.S.  Na- 
tional Museum , xlvii,  361-362,  1914. 

S.  A.  Rohwer: 

Results  of  Yale  Peruvian  Expedition  of  1911  — Hymenoptera, 
Superfamilies  Vespoidea  and  Sphecoidea.  Proceedings  of  U.S. 
National  Museum,  xliv,  439-454,  1913. 

Leonhard  Stejneger: 

Results  of  Yale  Peruvian  Expedition  of  1911.  Batrachians  and 
Reptiles.  Proceedings  of  U.S.  National  Museum,  xlv,  541-547, 

1913. 

Oldfield  Thomas: 

Report  on  the  Mammalia  Collected  by  Mr.  Edmund  Heller 
during  Peruvian  Expedition  of  1915.  Proceedings  of  U.S.  Na- 
tional Museum,  lviii,  217-249,  1920.  2 pi. 

H.  L.  Viereck: 

Results  of  Yale  Peruvian  Expedition  of  1911.  Hymenoptera- 
Ichneumonoidea.  Proceedings  of  U.S . National  Museum,  xliv, 
469-470,  1913. 

R.  S.  Williams: 

Peruvian  Mosses.  Bulletin  of  Torrey  Botanical  Club , xliii,  323- 
334,  June,  1916.  4 pi.  ' 


INDEX 


Abancay,  183. 

Aconcagua,  Mt.,  3,  44. 

Adobe,  15,  129-132,  262. 
Agriculture,  19,  55,  62,  72,  1 19, 
121-125,  136,  144,  145,  148, 
204-206,  235,  256,  275,  282, 
283,  311,  319.  320,  326,  332- 
334- 

milpa,  293. 

Aguardiente , 18,  231,  325. 
Aguilar,  Dr.,  136,  137,  142. 
Ajochiucha,  63,  65. 

Alacena,  328. 

Alcaldes , 114,  115,  236. 

Almagro,  148,  170. 

Alpacas,  57,  63-65,  85,  120,  146, 
253.  258,  260. 

■ wool  of,  61,  63-65,  69,  88, 

no,  174. 

Alvarez,  317,  323,  325. 

Amauta  Empire,  118-120,  Chap. 
XVI,  passim,  330-333. 

Pachacuti  VI,  118-120,  306- 

308,  330,  331- 
Amazon,  116-117,  267. 

American  flag,  39,  46,  58. 
American  shoes,  18. 

Ancestor  worship,  132,  246,  332. 
Andaray,  93. 

Andenes,  56,  246,  247.  See  Ter- 
races. 

Anderson,  E.  L.,  ix. 

Andes,  245. 

Aneroids,  21.  34,  37,  38,  44. 
Angostura  Pass,  142,  143,  149. 
Anta,  159. 

Antabamba,  province  of,  51. 
Antis , 183,  245 
Ants,  300. 

Anu,  87,  331. 

Aplao,  17. 


Appalachian  Mt.  Club,  35,  46. 

Apurimac  River  bridge,  I. 

valley,  185,  194,  232, 

253,  262,  269,  272,  273. 

Araranca,  116. 

Araucanians,  119. 

Architecture  of  Incas,  104,  105, 
130,  141,  142,  161,  211,  216, 
237,  239,  242,  293-295,  321, 
328,  338. 

Arequipa,  7,  9,  66,  95. 

explosion  and  fire  in,  95, 

97- 

Arma,  Rio,  52. 

Arrieros , 7,  29,  30,  49,  72,  158. 
See  Muleteers. 

Arteaga,  Melchor,  215,  315,  316, 
319,  325- 

Aryballus , 287,  296. 

Ausangate,  Mt.,  137. 

Axes,  Inca,  288. 

Ayacucho,  178,  253. 

Ayahuaycco  quebrada,  149-15 1, 
154-156. 

Aymara  peddlers,  106. 

secret  societies,  107-108. 

Aymaras,  102,  106,  109. 

Azequias,  96,  139,  140,  143. 

Balsas , 97,  98,  196,  299. 

Banbaconas,  269.  See  Pampaco- 
nas. 

Bandelier,  Adolph,  2,  44,  49,  102, 
261. 

Bar-holds,  129,  21 1. 

Bassett,  George,  75,  76. 

Bears,  212. 

Bees,  301. 

Bells,  church,  113,  256. 

Benavides,  Sr.,  19,  94. 

Bestor,  Paul,  ix. 


354 


INDEX 


Betanzos,  John,  184. 

Birds,  77-79. 

Bison,  153,  155,  156. 

Biticos,  199. 

Blaisdell,  L.  S.,  x. 

Boat,  folding,  75. 

Boats,  balsas,  97,  98. 

Boba,  92. 

Bolas,  175,  310. 

Bones,  Cuzco,  149-156. 

■ Machu  Picchu,  335. 

Bowling-green,  18 1. 

Bowman,  Dr.  Isaiah,  viii,  46,  51, 
53*  59, 60, 99, 150-154,  300,  323- 

Bull-baiting,  108,  109. 

Bulrushes,  97. 

Bumstead,  Albert  H.,  ix,  112, 154, 
225,  272. 

Burial  places,  84,  92,  287,  320, 

328,  335- 

Butler,  Ellis  Parker,  274,  275. 

Cachimayo  River,  148. 

Cacti,  66,  89,  136. 

Calancha,  Father,  178,  179,  187, 
188,  191,  216,  221,  222,  246, 
248,  251,  253,  255,  263,  265, 
266,  297,  298,  334-336. 

Callanga  ruins,  91-93. 

Canihua,  123. 

Caraveli  Canyon,  89,  90. 

Cargador,  28. 

Carnegie  Institution  of  Washing- 
ton, Dept,  of  Terrestrial  Mag- 
netism, 21. 

Carrasco,  Sergeant,  215,  278, 
3I5-3I7- 

Castelnau,  205,  208. 

Castilla,  province  of,  17. 

Caterpillars,  205,  302. 

Caves,  84,  246. 

Machu  Picchu,  320,  328, 

335- 

Paccaritampu,  120,  313, 

327*  330. 

Titicaca  Island,  101. 


Caves,  Tocco,  329. 

Ccllumayu,  221-223. 

Cerro  Colorado,  16. 

Chachani,  Mt.,  95. 

Chacras , 256,  275,  282,  283,  293. 
Chamberlain,  Dr.  Ralph  V.,  224. 
Chancaca,  288. 

Chapman,  Frank,  79,  126. 
Charaja,  Ricardo,  no. 

Chasquis , 207. 

Chauillay,  226,  227. 

Chicha,  114,  123,  185. 
Chichipampa,  65. 

Chincheros,  204. 

Chinchilla,  87. 

Chinchon,  Count  of,  118. 

Chinese  folkways,  114. 
Choqquechacca  Bridge,  201.  See 
Chuquichaca. 

Choqquequirau,  1-3,  199,  202, 
220,  230,  232,  262,  298. 
Christoval  de  Albornoz,  238,  239. 
Chumpillo,  Pampa  of,  51. 
Chunchullumayo  River,  149. 
Chuno , 25,  103,  280. 
Chuquibamba,  19,  23,  50-52,  75, 
94- 

Chuquichaca  Bridge,  184,  194, 
195,  227,  228,  236. 
Chuquipalpa,  188-190,  197,  201, 
230,  246,  251. 

Chuquipalta,  247,  251. 

Cieza  de  Leon,  26,  51,  172,  173, 
177,245,  251,252,339. 

Cists,  burial,  92,  287. 

Climate,  vii,  10,  n,  19,  57,  62, 
102,  173,  205,  229,  254,  297, 
301,  327,  332. 

Coca,  231,  258,  259,  280,  293,  325, 
33i- 

Coello,  Prof.  Alejandro,  19,  20, 
Chap.  II,  passim. 

Coenolestes,  212. 

Cohoba,  217,  218. 

Colcabamba,  72. 

Colcampata,  163,  164. 


INDEX  355 


Collas,  1 17. 

Colpani,  226,  282,  314. 

Colta,  66,  71,  72. 

Comberciato  River,  300,  301. 
Commerce.  See  Trade. 
Community  methods  of  labor, 
122,  123. 

Condesuyos,  province  of,  19. 
Condore,  Manuel,  257,  268,  273- 
275,  277. 

Conquistadores,  160, 167,  324,  333. 
Conservidayoc,  vii,  231,  Chap. 

XIV,  passim,  298,  304. 
Convencion,  Province  of,  200, 
230. 

Conway,  Sir  Martin,  33. 

Cook,  O.  F.,  ix,  55,  112,  113,  121, 
124,  143,  217,  317. 

Copacabana  fair,  106-109. 
Cordillera  Real,  105. 

Coribeni  River,  300. 
Corihuayrachina,  213. 

Coriri,  17. 

Coropuna,  Mt.,  2,  3,  12,  14,  16, 
20,  22,  Chap.  II,  passim,  88, 
323- 

altitude  of,  2,  3,  44,  45,  49. 

devils,  26. 

east  peak,  45. 

latitude  and  longitude,  49. 

north  peak,  41,  42,  44. 

record  left  on,  46. 

temperature,  37,  38,  45. 

top  of,  42-45,  51-53,  62. 

Cosireni  River,  273,  300-302. 
Cotahuasi,  51,  55,  57,  59,  60. 
“Cradle  of  Gold,”  202. 

Crampons,  35,  36. 

Cumard , 317. 

Curahuasi,  194. 

Cuys,  223,  274,  275. 

Cuzco,  ix,  1,  1 13,  137,  140,  145- 
147,  J57,  Chap.  VIII,  passim, 
185,  197,  203,  205,  210,  253, 
273,  307,  308,  311,  312,  321, 
323,  331-333,  339- 


Cuzco,  Basin  and  ruins,  134,  142- 
148,  152,  155. 

bones,  149-156. 

gravels,  150, 151,  I53“i55- 

Historical  Society,  203. 

hospital,  162. 

merchants,  158,  244. 

people  in, 159-162,  200,  202. 

siege  of,  170. 

university,  161,  162,  226. 

de  Laet,  198. 

Desert,  coastal,  vii,  10,  11,  15,  24, 
43,  52,  89. 

Devil,  248,  249. 

Devils,  Corpouna,  26. 

Diego  Mendez,  179,  182. 

Diego  Ortiz,  Friar,  188,  190-193, 
197,  238,  246,  252,  263,  297, 
334- 

Diseases,  127,  128,  261,  262. 
Divers,  black,  79. 

Dogs,  suncca  shepherd,  12 1. 
Drainage,  146. 

Druggists,  128. 

Ducks,  79. 

Duque,  Don  Pedro,  x,  228-231, 
266. 

Dyes,  107. 

Earthquakes,  95,  96,  281,  28 2, 
311- 

Eaton,  Dr.  George  F.,  ix,  151, 
152,  154-156,  335,  336. 
Encomienda,  220. 

Equipment  of  Expeditions,  4-6, 
10,  13,  21,  34-36,  38-40. 

Erdis,  E.  C.,  ix. 

Eromboni  Pampa,  294,  297. 
Erving,  Dr.  William  G.,  ix,  149, 
162. 

Eskimo,  125,  127. 

Espiritu  Pampa,  269,  278,  286, 
Chap.  XV  passim,  306,  336- 
338.* 

Eucalyptus  trees,  66,  70,  89,  145. 


356  INDEX 


Eye-bonders,  21 1. 

Fair  at  Copacabana,  106--109. 

at  Lake  Parinacochas,  69, 

83* 

Farrabee,  Dr.  William  C.,  202. 

Fer-de-lance,  315. 

Ferris,  Dr.  H.  B.,  126,  127. 

Fertilizers,  56,  103. 

Fig  trees,  89,  283. 

Fishes,  Inca,  100. 

— — in  Lake  Titicaca,  99. 

Fishing,  301. 

Fitzgerald,  explorer,  33. 

Flags,  39,  46,  58. 

Flamingoes,  73,  77-79. 

Lake  of,  50,  77. 

Fleas,  93,  137. 

Food  boxes  of  expeditions,  3-6, 
34,  39, 

— — crops,  19,  56,  57,  62,  66,  72, 
73,  86,  103,  121,  123,  124,  136, 
173,282,286,331. 

of  Indian  carriers,  280. 

Foote,  Professor  Harry  W.,  ix,  4, 
149,  151,  202,  223-225,  231, 
266,  267,  270,  283,  286,  304. 

Footprints  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
102. 

Ford,  Dr.  David  E.,  ix,  300. 

Forests.  See  Trees. 

Forts  and  Fortresses,  135,  136, 
164-168,  171,  206,  209,  210, 
236,  241,  252,  307,  326,  338. 

Fountains,  141,  146,  294,  295. 

Friar  Diego  Ortiz,  188,  190-193, 
197,  238,  246,  252,  263,  297, 
334- 

Marcos  Garcia,  182,  187, 

188,  190,  191,  197,  238,  246, 
248,  252,  263,  297,  334,  337. 

Melchior,  184. 

Fuel,  103,  144,  145. 

Gamarra,  Corporal,  9,  Chap.  II, 
passim,  59,  60. 


Games  of  chance,  107. 

, bowling-on-the-green,  179, 

181,  244. 

— — checkers  and  chess,  179. 

Inca,  185. 

quoits,  179,  244. 

Garcia.  See  Friar  Marcos. 

Garcia  de  Loyola,  Captain,  186, 
194-197,  208,  227,  233,  236, 
239,  241,  242,  252,  265,  298- 
300,  304. 

Garcilasso  Inca  de  la  Vega,  173- 
175,  181,  182,  185,  194,  196, 
255,  304,  309- 

Gendarmes , 9,  25,  57,  68,  159,  215, 
271,  282. 

Giesecke,  Dr.,  142,  162,  163. 

Gilbert,  G.  Bruce,  ix,  12 1. 

Glacial  man,  153. 

Glaciers,  vii,  Chap.  II,  passim, 
52,  171,  273. 

Gold.  See  Ore. 

Gomez  Perez,  179-181. 

Grace  Brothers,  21. 

Grace  & Company,  W.  R.,  x. 

Granaries,  135,  See  Storehouses. 

Granite,  white,  243,  320. 

wall  at  Machu  Picchu,  320, 

321. 

Gravels,  Cuzco,  150,  151,  153- 
155. 

Green,  Henry  J.,  21. 

Gregory,  Professor  Herbert  E., 
ix,  99,  143,  154,  161. 

Grosvenor,  Gilbert,  ix. 

Guanaco,  64. 

Guaynapucara,  241,  242,  252. 

Gulls,  79. 

Guzman,  Alonzo  Enriques  de, 
170,  175- 

the  Indian  carrier,  277- 

279,  280,  284,  304,  305. 

Habas  beans,  124. 

Hakluyt  Society,  118,  307. 

Hamilton,  Lord  Frederick,  113. 


INDEX 


357 


Hardy,  Osgood,  ix. 

Harkness,  Edward  S.,  ix. 
Harness,  134. 

Harper’s  Magazine,  viii. 

Harvard  Anthropological  Expedi- 
tion, 202. 

Harvard  Observatory,  Arequipa, 
7,  13,  21,  45. 

Hasbrouck,  J.  J.,  ix. 
Havaspampa,  208. 

Hay,  Clarence  L.,  viii,  2,  253. 
Heald,  K.  C.,  ix,  154. 

Heller,  Edmund,  ix,  212,  217, 
300,  301. 

Hendriksen,  Kai,  ix,  22,  46,  49, 
51,  59,  61,  212,  272,  302,  323. 
Hicks,  J.,  21. 

Hill  of  Roses.  See  Rosaspata. 
Hinckley,  F.,  8,  9,  13-15. 
Honolulu,  Nuuanu  Pali  near, 
3H- 

salt  lake  near,  76. 

Horses,  134. 

Hospital  at  Cuzco,  162,  163. 
Hoyara,  256,  257. 

Hrdlicka,  Dr.  Ales,  126. 

Huacas , 147,  246,  247,  249. 
Huaccoto  quarries,  161. 
Huadquina,  208,  219,  220,  225, 
259,  282,  325. 

Huanacaurai,  Mt.,  144. 
Huancahuanca  66,  67,  71. 
Huaracondo,  159. 

Huarancalla,  188,  252,  253. 
Huarancalque,  253. 

Huascaran,  Mt.,  35. 

Huatanay  River  and  valley,  133- 
137,  142,  144,  148,  149,  154. 
Huayara,  213. 

Huayna  Picchu,  Mt.,  201,  215, 

318- 

Huayrachina,  213. 

Huilca , ix,  218,  264,  336. 

Hunting  and  fishing,  301. 
Hurtado,  General  Martin,  194, 
195,  197,  227. 


Ibis,  79. 

Ideographs,  309,  310. 

Idma,  235. 

Inca  agriculture,  103,  144,  332. 

architecture,  104,  105,  130, 

141,  142,  166,  211,  216,  237, 
239,  242,  243,  294,  295,  321, 
328,  332. 

artifacts,  244. 

Atahualpa,  170. 

axes,  288. 

Beatrix  Coya,  183. 

capital,  262. 

— - — Carlos,  163. 

colonizaton  methods,  141. 

— — dogs,  121. 

Empire,  133,  332,  333. 

engineering,  331,  332. 

fish,  100. 

forts  and  fortresses,  135, 

146,  164-168,  171,  209,  210, 
236,  237,  240,  241,  245. 

Garcilasso,  I73-I75»  18 1, 

182,  185,  255. 

Hualpa,  196. 

Pluayna  Capac,  170,  194. 

labor  system,  122,  166,  172, 

174,  206,  207,  208,  219,  276, 
33i. 

Manco,  2,  170-178,  194, 

195,  197,  208,  210,  227,  244, 
245,  247,  251,  254,  258,  260, 
273,  297,  311,  330,  334,  337, 
338,  339. 

murder  of,  181-183, 

179,  180,  181,  244. 

Manco  Ccapac,  170,  31 1- 

313,  .327,  329,  330,  332. 

Nusta,  250. 

origin,  myths  concerning, 

333* 

palaces,  163,  243,  245. 

Philipe  Quispetutio,  241. 

pottery,  131,  142,  287,  293, 

295,  296. 

priests,  217,  218,  248,  336. 


INDEX 


358 

Inca  property,  122,  207. 

raids,  173-175,  244,  253, 

337. 

-religious  customs  and  festi- 
vals, 105,  144,  147,  168,  185, 
189,  194,  203,  217,  218,  246, 
248,  250,  264,  265,  333. 

— — roads,  84-86. 

Rimachi  Yupanqui,  183. 

ruins,  51,  65,  83-86,  101, 

1 17,  129-131,  135-142,  146, 
147,  165-168,  206,  207,  210- 
212,  215,  232,  236,  237,  239, 

240,  242,  268,  271,  292,  294, 
296,  298,  312,  Chap.  XVII, 
passim. 

runners,  100,  207.  ■ 

Sayri  Tupac,  183-186,  197, 

199,  204,  245. 

sculpture,  100,  101. 

stonework,  104,  129,  135, 

160,  163,  165,  166,  206,  224, 
321,  322. 

storehouses,  52,  65,  207, 

224,  225,  295. 

temples,  51,  129-132,  213, 

247,  321,322,327. 

— — Titu  Cusi  Yupanqui,  163, 
182,  183,  186,  187,  189,  191- 
193,  197,  238,  241,  244-246, 

248,  252,  334. 

Tupac  Amaru,  183,  186, 

193,  195-197,  216,  227,  234, 

241,  245,  268,  298-300,  303, 

304. 

Viracocha,  131,  132. 

— — wall  at  La  Raya,  117,  119, 

120. 

— —weapons,  175. 

Yupanqui,  147. 

Incahuasi,  83,  84,  86. 

Incas,  123,  140-143,  165,  168, 

203,  325. 

“Cradle  of”  viii. 

Last  Four,  Chap.  IX,  passim, 

304,  306. 


Incas,  Lost  City  of  first,  306. 

Sacred  City  of  last,  339. 

Indian  population,  261,  263. 
Indians,  18. 

Amazonian,  303. 

Bolivian,  103. 

Campas,  267,  290,  303. 

carriers,  271,  275,  276,  283, 

284. 

clothing,  107,  108,  115,  1 16, 

161,  289-290,  302,  303. 

customs  and  superstitions, 

25-27,  70,  83,  97,  106-109, 1 15, 
1 16, 121-123, 128,203,204,250. 

Manaries,  196,  255,  299. 

at  Pampaconas,  271,  282, 

292. 

— — at  Lake  Parinacochas,  83. 

Pichanguerras,  289-291. 

Pilcosones,  255. 

savage,  267,  284,  286,  289, 

294, 302. 

Yungas,  265,  336. 

Insects,  224,  286,  300,  301. 
Intihuatana,  247,  250,  334. 
Irrigation,  14,  55,  67. 

Jamieson,  Dr.  George  S.t  82. 
Jesuits,  220,  228. 

Jew’s-harps,  244. 

Johnson,  Frederic  B.,  x. 

Kipling’s  “Explorer”  2. 

Kissing,  ceremony  of,  189,  248. 
Kkaira,  143. 

Koati,  island  of,  101,  104,  105. 
Koolau  Ditch  Trail,  314. 

Kori,  213. 

Labor,  methods  of,  122,  123,  133, 
219,  271,  275,  276. 

La  Farge,  Bancel,  104. 

Lake  Morkill,  148,  149. 

Muyna,  136. 

Parinacochas.  See  Parma* 

cochas. 


INDEX 


359 


Lake  Titicaca.  See  Titicaca. 
Lampa,  63-71. 

Lanius,  Paul  B.,  ix. 

La  Raya,  116,  117,  119-121,  123, 

307. 

Las  Casas,  Bishop,  179,  218. 

Las  Salinas , 148,  329. 

Lava,  24,  31,  52,  53.  85,  88,  91, 
132,  136. 

La  Victoria  Mine,  89,  91. 
Leagues,  7. 

Leguia,  President  A.  B.,  ix,  68. 
Lima,  10,  57,  66,  185. 
Limatambo,  194. 

Little,  Joseph,  ix. 

Lizarraga,  Sr.,  219,  221,  226,  324. 
Lkalla  Chaca,  146-148. 

Llacta,  21 1. 

Llamas,  51,  52,  57,  63-65,  85,  86, 
91,  no,  in,  146,  160,  174, 
253,  258,  260. 

Lomellini,  Don  Cesare,  x,  163, 
164,  201. 

Lucma,  230,  231,  235-237,  251, 
253.  262. 

Lucre  Basin  and  ruins,  134,  136, 
I39-I4I- 

Lucumayo  River,  194,  201,  226. 

Macaws,  269,  296,  298. 

Macchini , 147. 

Machu  Picchu,  ix,  135,  201,  202, 
215-222,  226,  265,  297,  298, 
306,  Chap.  XVII,  passim,  323, 
Chap.  XVIII,  passim. 

last  residents  of,  335, 

336. 

McKinley,  Mt.,  expedition,  8,  31. 
Majes,  18. 

desert  of,  vii,  15,  16,  94. 

River  and  valley,  16,  17,  19. 

Manantial  de  agua,  246. 

Mandor  Pampa,  214,  215,  315, 
325- 

Manioc , 286. 

Mapillo  River  and  valley,  253. 


Map,  de  Laet’s,  198. 

Mercator’s,  198. 

Miller’s,  50. 

Raimondi’s,  17,  232,  260, 

269,  272. 

Royal  Geographical  Society, 

269,  272. 

Wiener’s,  201,  211. 

Maquina , La,  214. 

Maracnyoc,  232,  234. 

Maraicasa  Valley,  88. 

Maranura,  325. 

Maras,  159,  231. 

Marcos  Garcia,  Friar,  182,  187, 
188,  190,  191,  197,  238,  246, 
248,  252,  263,  297,  334,  337. 
Marcou,  205. 

Markham,  Sir  Clements,  50,  74, 
1 18,  182,  312,  327,  328,  336. 
Marsupial,  213. 

Mastadon,  149. 

Mato-palo , 283. 

Maucallacta,  312,  313. 

Mauna  Kea,  Hawaii,  43. 
Maynard,  Clarence  F.,  ix,  300, 
302. 

Means,  Philip  A.,  118,  307. 
Medanos,  10-12,  16. 

Medicines,  99,  128,  129,  163. 
Megaliths,  207,  210. 

Melchior,  Friar,  184. 

Mendez.  See  Diego  Mendez. 
Mercator,  cartographer,  198. 
Meridian,  73d  west  of  Greenwich, 
3,  8,  22,  51,  59. 

Mestizos,  221,  258,  259. 

Metals.  See  Ore. 

Miller,  Gen.  William,  50,  208. 
Millstones,  238. 

Milpa.  See  Agriculture. 

Mines,  232,  234,  238,  256,  257- 
259,  261,  262,  272. 

Huadquina,  220. 

La  Victoria,  at  Caraveli,  89, 

91* 

Misti,  El,  8,  53,  95. 


INDEX 


360 


Mitchell,  Mrs.  Alfred,  x. 
Mochadero , 189,  247. 

Mogrovejo,  Evaristo,  230,  235, 
236,  239,  240,  246,  271,  275, 
277. 

— Pio,  230. 

Molina,  147. 

Mollusks,  231. 

Momori,  196,  299,  300. 

Monkeys,  301-304. 

Monoliths  at  Tiahuanaco,  100. 
Montana , 6,  10,  255,  266-268. 
Montesinos,  Fernando,  118-120, 
179,  183,  184,  307,  309,  310, 
337. 

Morkill,  Geoffrey  W.,  ix. 

Morkill,  Lake,  148,  149. 

Morkill,  William  L.,  x,  149. 
Mortars  and  pestles,  92,  238,  239. 
Mountain  sickness,  24,  36,  46,  47, 
63,  270.  See  Soroche. 
Muleteers,  7,  28-31,  51, 70,  88-90, 
93,  94- 

Mummies,  212. 

Mungi,  62. 

Muyna,  Lake  and  town,  136. 

“Nakedness”  taboo,  101. 

Nasca,  84,  85. 

National  Geographic  Magazine, 
viii,  216. 

Society,  ix. 

Nelson,  Dr.  Luther  T.,  158,  159. 
New  Britain  hardware,  107. 

New  Haven  hardware,  107. 
Niches,  129,  130,  141,  142,  146, 
148,  21 1,  237,  239,  242,  246, 
295,  296,  320,  322,  328. 

step-topped,  104,  105. 

Nunez,  Prefect  of  Cuzco,  157, 
. T99- 

Nusta  Isppana,  247-250,  251, 
262. 

Oases,  10,  12,  13,  15,  52,  89,  91. 
Oca,  86,  124,  331. 


Ocampo,  Baltasar  de,  216,  227 i 
232,  233,  234,  238,  240,  242, 
243,  245,  252,  257,  258,  263, 
265,  266,  272,  298,  336. 

Occobamba,  124. 

Ollantaytambo,  137,  170,  171, 
194,  201,  205-207,  209,  210, 
222,  225,  226,  295,  319. 

Onccoy,  257,  258. 

Oranges,  228. 

Ore,  272. 

crushing  mill,  238,  239,  252. 

Orejones,  173. 

Orepesa,  137,  142. 

Basin  and  ruins,  134,  141, 

143. 

Ortiz.  See  Friar  Diego  Ortiz. 

Owls,  80. 

Ox,  amphibious,  79. 

Pacaypata,  283. 

Paccaritampu,  120,  312,  313, 
327,  328,  330- 

Pachacuti  VI,  118-129,  330,  331. 

Pachacuti  VII,  308,  310. 

Pachacuti  Yamqui  Salcamayhua, 
311,  313,  328. 

Pachatucsa,  Mt.,  144. 

Pack  animals  and  loading  of,  7, 
8,  14,  83,  90,  91. 

Palaces,  243,  245. 

Paltaybamba,  233-236,  266. 

Pampa,  11,  205,  214,  215. 

Pampa  Ccahua,  212. 

Pampacolca,  27. 

Pampa  Colorada,  43,  52. 

Pampaconas  Indians,  271. 

River  and  valley,  273,  280, 

283,  284,  299,  300. 

village,  268,  269,  271,  277, 

280,  288,  298,  304. 

Pampa  of  Ghosts,  269,  278,  Chap. 
XV,  passim. 

Pampas  River,  253,  272. 

Pancorbo,  Sr.,  Jose  S.,  200,  233, 
259,  266,  267. 


INDEX 


361 


Panta,  Mt.,  171. 

Panticalla  Pass,  171,  176,  194, 

201,  207,  208. 

Pararca,  72. 

Parinacochas  Basin  and  ruins, 
74,  83-87,  91. 

Parinacochas,  Lake,  50,  61,  69, 
73,  81-83. 

Bathymetric  survey  of, 

74-76. 

— birds  of,  77-79. 

depth  of,  75-77* 

Fair,  69,  83. 

temperature  of  water 

in,  82. 

water,  composition  of, 

82,  83. 

Parker,  Prof.  H.  C.,  8,  31. 

Pastor,  Dr.,  19. 

Pata,  21 1. 

Patagonians,  119. 

Patallacta,  21 1. 

Pava  de  la  montana,  289. 

Paz  Soldan,  199,  21 1,  262,  313. 
Peanuts,  269,  286,  298,  304. 

Peat,  52. 

Peccaries,  300. 

Peruvian  Expeditions,  3,  200, 

202,  212. 

Peruvian  gentlemen,  28. 

highlanders,  101,  103,  124- 

127,  226. 

Pestles,  92,  238,  239. 

Pichu  Pichu,  Mt.,  95. 

Picol,  Mt.,  143,  161. 

“Picos,  ” 198. 

Pictographic  rocks,  16,  17,  19,91. 
Pigs,  278,  279. 

Guinea,  223,  274,  275. 

Pigweed,  123,  124. 

“Pincos,”  198. 

Piptadenia  peregrina , 218. 
Piquillacta,  Mt.,  135-138. 

ruins  of,  134-141. 

Piri,  208. 

Pisac,  137. 


Pitas,  16. 

Pitcos,  199,  216,  240,  252. 

Pizarro,  Francisco,  148,  168,  170, 
I7L  175,  177-180,  210,  232, 
25L  253,  333,  337. 

Gonzalo,  178-180,  227,  244. 

Plantain,  331. 

Ploughing,  122,  123. 

Pneumonia,  127. 

Polo  de  Ondegardo,  100, 146,  207, 
339- 

Polynesian  kumala , 317. 

Poplar  trees,  206. 

Posnansky,  Sr.,  98,  99. 

Potatoes,  26,  86,  121,  146,  160, 
212,  257,  331. 

frozen,  25,  103.  See  CJiuno. 

sweet,  282,  317,  331. 

Potsherds,  86,  93,  142,  244,  250. 

Pottery,  found,  86,  287,  295,  296, 
338. 

making,  131,  132. 

Prain,  Mr.,  manager  of  “La 
Victoria”  mine,  89. 

Pre-Inca  civilization,  85,  86,  91- 
93,  100,  101 , 1 18, 137,  140,  152. 

Prescott,  William  H.,  148,  175, 
198. 

Pucara  ruins,  146. 

Pucard , 236. 

Pucyura,  200,  232,  237,  252-254, 
259,  260,  262,  263,  297.  See 
Puquiura. 

PumaUrco  caves,  312,  313. 

Puno,  97. 

Puquiura,  187,  190, 191,  200,  238, 
248,  252,  255,  263,  297,  335. 
See  Pucyura. 

Puyusca,  73-75,  83. 

Qquente,  21 1. 

Quichua  language,  ix,  121,  199. 

— holiday  makers,  1 14. 

Quichuas,  no,  125-127,  152,  158, 
176. 

occupation,  120,  121. 


INDEX 


362 

Quichuas,  studies  made  of,  125, 
126,  158,  159. 

Quillabamba,  228,  230. 

Quinine,  118. 

Quinoa,  124,  331. 

Quipus,  100,  309,  310. 

Quispicanchi,  141. 

Quispi  Cusi,  268. 

Rabbit-squirrels,  87. 

Racche,  1 29-1 32. 

Raimondi,  3,  27,  44,  83,  199,  208, 
21 1,  232,  234,  237,  238,  252, 
260,  262,  269,  272,  325. 

Rainy  season,  76,  234. 

Repartimientos,  133,  180,  220. 

Reynolds,  Miss  Mary  G.,  x. 

Richarte,  317-319,  323,  325- 

Rio  Grande  Valley,  91. 

Roads,  Inca,  84-86. 

— — modern,  202,  214,  259,  318, 
324,  325- 

Rock  circles,  85. 

Rodriguez  de  Figueroa,  Diego, 
186,  244, 268, 298,  299. 

Romero,  Carlos,  200, 232, 

Roof  pegs,  2 1 1,  295. 

Roof  tiles,  295. 

Roofs,  corrugated  iron,  116. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  58. 

Root-crops,  56,  86,  87,  103,  12 1, 
123,  124,  331. 

Root,  Elihu,  58. 

Rosaspata,  237,  239,  240,  242, 
243,  246,  252,  258,  260  262, 
268,306,338. 

Royal  Geographical  Society  pub- 
lications, 50,  269,  272. 

Rubber,  228,  233,  235,  255,  262, 
266,  267,  291. 

Ruins,  200,  201,  221,  236,  238, 
239,  243, 246,  262, 268, 306, 312. 

Callanga,  91-93. 

Ccllumayu,  221-223. 

— — Chichipampa,  65. 

Cb^qquequirau,  1-3,  199, 


202,  220,  230,  232,  262,  298. 
Ruins,  Chumpillo,  51,  52. 

Corihuayrachina,  213. 

Eromboni  Pampa,  294,  297. 

Espiritu  Pampa,  Chap.  XIV 

and  XV,  passim,  206. 

Hoyara  (Huayara),  234. 

Huayna  Picchu,  215. 

Incahuaracana,  236,  237, 

239- 

- — Incahuasi,  83,  84,  86. 

La  Raya,  117,  119. 

Machu  Picchu,  215,  Chap. 

XVII  and  XVIII,  passim. 

Nusta  Isppana,  247-250. 

Ollantaytambo,  137,  205- 

207. 

Paccaritampu,  312,  327. 

— — Panticalla  Pass,  207. 

Patallacta,  21 1. 

Piquillacta,  134-141. 

Pre-Inca,  86,  91,  100,  137. 

Pucara,  146. 

Racche,  129-131. 

— — Rosaspata,  237,  239,  240, 
242,  306. 

Rumiccolca,  1 34-141. 

Rumihuasi,  148. 

Sacsahuaman,  164-168. 

Salapunco,  208-210. 

Saylla,  142-144. 

Tampu  Machai,  146,  147. 

Tipon,  141,  142. 

Titicaca  and  Koati  Islands, 

101. 

Torontoy,  21 1,  212. 

Uncapampa,  239,  242. 

Yurak  Rumi,  222,  224,  225. 

Rumiccolca,  Mt.,  139. 

ruins,  134-141. 

Rumihuasi,  148. 

Runners,  Inca,  100,  207. 

Saavedra,  266-268,  284-292,  296, 
304- 

Sacrifice,  human,  147,  334. 


INDEX 


363 


Sacsahuaman,  164-168,  209. 
Saddles,  134. 

Safford,  W.  E.,  217,  218,  335. 
Salapunco,  208,  209,  210. 
Salcantay,  Mt.,  171,  208,  245, 
253,  325- 

— — River  and  valley,  225. 

Salt  works,  148,  329. 

Samoans,  103. 

San  Fernando,  280-282,  304. 

San  Francisco  de  la  Victoria,  256, 
257,  260. 

San  Geronimo,  142-144. 

San  Miguel  River  and  bridge, 
200,  217,  219,  221,  233,  324, 
334. 

Valley,  235,  262,  266,  267. 

San  Sebastian,  148. 

Santa  Ana,  117,  200,  227-231, 
Chap.  XI,  passim,  259. 

Santa  Rosa,  no,  112-116. 
Sarasara,  Mt.,  67,  72,  81,  87. 
Sartiges,  Count  de,  199,  208,  220, 
324,  325- 

Savages,  267,  284,  286,  287,  289, 
290,  294,  296,  300-304. 

Saylla,  1 42-1 44,  149. 

Schools,  237,  238. 

Scissors,  244. 

Sculpture,  100,  101. 

Seahorse,  99. 

Seneca,  Mt.,  203. 

Seymour,  Professor  T.  D.,  93. 
Sheep,  57,  63,  69,  80,  120,  145, 
275- 

Shells,  fossil,  149. 

land,  231. 

Shepherds,  65,  121. 

— — clothing  of,  81. 

superstitious,  80,  81,  86. 

Sicuani,  128,  129. 

Sierra,  John,  184,  185. 

Sihuas,  desert  and  pampa  of,  12, 
14. 

oasis  of,  15. 

Simaponte,  196,  299,  300. 

Sirialo  River,  300. 


Skulls,  horses’,  116. 

trepanned,  84,  335. 

Slings,  175,  176,  237,  310. 

Snails,  231. 

Snakes,  43,  92,  315,  317.  . 

pictures  and  carvings  of, 

91. 

Snow,  20,  Chap.  II,  passim,  72, 
85. 

blindness,  27,  49. 

creepers,  35,  36,  41. 

Snuff,  217,  218,  264,  336. 
Soiroccocha,  Mt.,  112,  171. 
Solimana,  Mt.,  43,  53,  54,  62. 
Sondor,  88. 

Sorata,  Mt.,  105. 

Soray,  Mt.,  171,  208,  253. 

Soroche , 25,  32,  34,  37, 38, 40.  See 
Mountain  sickness. 

Spanish  Conquest  of  Peru,  Chap. 
IX,  passim. 

fugitives,  179-182,  244, 

245- 

-laws,  133,  179,  180,  197. 

Spiders,  224. 

Squier,  E.  G.,  I,  129,  130,  136, 
139*  157,  159,  205. 

Stairs,  stone,  141,  274,  292,  321. 
Stephenson,  Robert,  ix. 

Steps,  ornamental  use  in  architec- 
ture, 104-105. 

Stone-granary,  135. 

pegs,  296,  320. 

seats,  251. 

Stonework,  104,  129,  135,  160, 
163,  165,  166,  206,  224,  321, 
322. 

Storehouses,  Inca,  52,  65,  207, 
224,  225,  295. 

Sugar,  5,  32,  41,  270,  288,  304. 

cane,  219,  220, 259, 285, 286. 

mill,  286-288. 

Sumner’s  “Folkways,”  309. 

Sun,  Prayer  to,  248. 

Temples  and  Houses  of, 

188,  190,  191,  193,  197,  241, 
246,  249,  251,  252. 


INDEX 


364 


Sun,  Virgins  of,  193,  265,  297, 

333,  338,  340. 

Worship  of,  105,  147,  167, 

168,  189,  203,  248,  249,  333, 

334,338. 

Suncca  dogs,  121, 

Taft,  Hon.  William  H.,  x. 

Tailor  at  Cotahuasi,  60. 

Tambo  Machai,  147.  See  Tampu 
Machai. 

207, 313,  328. 

Tampu  Machai,  146,  147. 

Tampu-tocco,  Lost  City  of  Incas, 
120,  306,  307,  311-313,  327- 
331, 333, 338, 339* 

rulers  and  priests  of,  308- 

310. 

Tea,  32,  39,  270,  305. 

Tejada  brothers,  7,  28-31,  51,  70, 
88,  89,  93,  94. 

Temblor , 281. 

Temperature,  27,  28,  45,  82,  103. 

Temple  of  Three  Windows,  322, 
327* 

Viracocha,  1 29-132. 

Temples,  51,  129-132,  213,  247, 
321,  322. 

Temporales , 124,  204. 

Tents,  31,  32,  37. 

Terraces  {see  Andenes ),  54-57, 
62,  66,  84,  101 , 105,  124,  135, 
140,  141,  146,  165-167,  204, 
206,  209,  21 1-2 13,  215,  246, 
247,  294,  296,  315,  317,  319, 
320,  325. 

Thomas,  Oldfield,  213. 

Tiahuanaco,  98,  100,  101. 

Tierra  del  Fuego,  127. 

Tilano  de  Anaya,  192,  193. 

Timpucpuquio,  147. 

Tincochaca,  240,  251,  252. 

River,  239. 

Tipon  ruins,  141,  152. 

Titicaca,  Lake,  Chap.  V,  passim. 

climate,  102. 

depth,  75,  99. 


Titicaca,  Lake,  fish  in,  99. 

islands  of,  101-103, 

333. 

— temperature  of  water, 

98. 

Titicaca  Basin,  no,  116, 120. 

tribes,  117,  118. 

Tobacco,  286,  289. 

Tocco , 328. 

cave  called,  329. 

Toledo,  Don  Francisco  de,  1 92, 
193,  227,  241,  277,  329,  339. 

Tompkins,  Mrs.  Blanche  P.,  x. 

Torontoy,  209-213,  314,  319. 

Torres,  Sr.  Lopez,  229,  266,  293. 

Totoras,  97. 

Trade  and  commerce,  106,  114, 
128,  158,  207. 

Transportation,  difficulties  of,  14, 
89-91,  172,  214,  272. 

Traveling,  difficulties  of,  58,  67, 

88. 

Treasure  seeking,  19,  52,  202, 
230,  242. 

Tree  ferns,  vii,  284. 

Trees  and  “tree  line”  in  Andes, 
66,  70,  89,  1 12,  1 13,  144,  145, 
206,  212,  236,  283. 

Ttica  Ttica  Pass,  144,  203. 

Tuberculosis,  128. 

Tucker,  H.  L.,  ix,  8,  9,  Chap.  II, 
passim,  58,  75,  80,  88,  92,  212, 
302,  323. 

Tullumayu,  164. 

Turkeys,  289. 

Tutu  potato,  86. 

Ubinas,  Mt.,  53. 

Ucayali  River,  116. 

Uilca  {see  Huilca),  218,  336. 

Uilcamayu  (Uilca)  River,  117, 
203,219. 

Uilcapampa,  ix,  87,  171,  172, 183, 
184,  192,  195,  197,  198,  208, 
219,  227,  232,  240,  241,  243, 
251,  Chap.  XIII,  passim,  273, 
297,  322.  See  Vilcabamba. 

Old,  266,  268. 


INDEX 


365 


Uiticos,  ix,  171,  172,  I77-I79. 
181,  183,  184,  188-190,  192, 
193,  197,  198,  201,  216,  221, 
227,  229,  230,  232,  238,  240, 
241,  245,  246,  251,  253-255. 
258,  260,  261,  263,  298,  306, 
337.  338. 

Ullucu,  87, 331. 

Uncapampa,  239, 242. 

Ungacacha,  264, 297. 

“University  of  Idolatry,”  264, 
265,  297,  334-336. 

Uru,  205. 

Urubamba,  Grand  Canyon  of, 
213.  3i4.  330. 

meaning  of,  205. 

— — rapids,  318. 

River  and  valley,  116,  117, 

120,  133,  195,  201,  203,  204, 
208,  209,  215,  228,  259,  262, 
272,  273,  299,  337. 

town  of,  204. 

tribes,  118. 

Vaccination,  125. 

Vargas,  Senora  Carmen,  219-222. 

Velasco,  Luis  de,  257. 

Ventana,  328. 

Venus,  morning  star,  94. 

Veronica,  Mt.,  171, 207, 208, 325. 

Vicunas,  54,  69,  87,  hi,  112. 

Vilcabamba,  199,  227,  234,  Chap. 
XIII,  passim,  268,  269,  271, 
288,  297,  299,  303,  337.  See 
Uilcapampa. 

— — River  and  valley,  227,  232- 
234,  236-238,  252,  254,  260, 
272. 

Viejo,  263-266,  297,  298, 

335.  336,  338. 

Vilcanota  Cordillera,  no. 

River  and  valley,  117,  134, 

135.  137. 

Villadiego,  Captain,  175-177, 194, 
208. 

Viracocha,  Temple  of,  129-132. 


Viscachas,  87. 

Viscarra,  Sr.,  57-61. 

Vista  Alegre,  283. 

Videos  (Vitcos),  182,  198,  199, 
251,  260. 

Vitor,  9,  10. 

oasis  of,  12,  13. 

Volcanoes,  30,  43, 53,  81,  95,  138. 

Wars,  civil  of  Spanish  conquerors, 
148,  179. 

of  Independence,  50. 

of  Spanish  Conquest,  168, 

Chap.  IX,  passim. 

tribal,  118-120,  332. 

Water  supply,  234.  See  Azequias. 

Watkins,  Casimir,  8,  9,  35,  45-47, 
59,  75,  76. 

Weapons,  92,  120,  175,  195,  301, 
310- 

Weaving,  60,  69,  70,  no,  120, 
121. 

Whirl-bobs,  Inca,  244. 

White  Rock  over  spring,  188-190, 
200,  240,  247-251. 

Whooping  cough,  37,  47,  48. 

Whymper,  33. 

Wiener,  Charles,  201,  202,  205, 
207,  208,  211,  215,  229,  324, 
338. 

Willow  trees,  13,  145,  206. 

Wind,  10,  n,  32,  35,  46,  82,  103. 

Windows,  Masonry  wall  with 
(Temple  of)  Three,  312,  313, 
320,  322,  32 7,  328,  332,  333. 

Wine  growers,  18. 

jars,  13,  18. 

Woodpeckers,  79. 

Writing,  invention  of,  309, 310. 

Yale  flag,  39,  46. 

Yucay,  137,  186,  194,  197,  203, 
204. 

Yucca , 331. 

Yurak  Rumi,  189,  197,  221-225, 
251. 


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